Science

Critical thinking is a disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. It involves questioning ideas and assumptions rather than accepting them at face value.

It requires curiosity, skepticism, and humility to acknowledge the limitations of one’s knowledge and understanding. Critical thinking enables individuals to make reasoned judgments that are logical and well-thought-out. It is a foundational skill for problem solving and decision making in a wide range of contexts, and it empowers individuals to act more wisely and responsibly in their personal, professional, and civic lives — as well as to better evaluate the claims of experts.

Think Better with Mental Models

Mental models are a key component of critical thinking. They are a kind of strategic building block we can use to make sense of the world around us.

Some are formal mathematical proofs, some are scientific theories, and along the other end of the continuum are models more akin to metaphors or ancient wisdoms that still hold true today — they’ve been time tested and still hold explanatory value in helping us understand new (and new to us) phenomena.

Models are often extensible, and can apply to other systems in addition to their systems of origin. In fact, the most powerful models seem to show up again and again, across different disciplines and in a wide variety of contexts. They’re a bit like a mental image of how something works, that helps us predict what will happen next or explain how something works to others.

Also, multiple models can often be applied to the same systems — in order to describe different parts of that system, or account for different contexts, use cases, or configurations of the same process. Mental models aren’t like multiple-choice tests, where only one answer is correct — typically, a set of different models may have value in giving us a sense of how something works or how an ecosystem behaves.

See here for the set of Top Models to start with.

Then, follow up with the unabridged and upcoming collection I will continuously update and curate over time:

  • 4GW — 4Fourth Generation Warfare (4GW) refers to a form of conflict characterized by decentralized, non-state actors using unconventional tactics, such as guerrilla warfare, terrorism, and psychological operations, to undermine stronger traditional military forces. It often blurs the lines between combatants and civilians and emphasizes ideological, cultural, and media-based strategies to achieve political goals.
  • Absolute value — In math, the distance of a number from zero on the number line, without considering the direction; it is always a non-negative number.
  • Action bias — The tendency to prefer action over inaction, often driven by the emotional discomfort of feeling unproductive or the desire to appear decisive.
  • Adjustment heuristic — A cognitive shortcut or bias where people estimate a value based on an initial starting point (anchor) and then make adjustments from that point to reach their final estimate, often leading to systematic errors in judgment.
  • Agency capitalism — Alfred Rappaport’s agency capitalism theory, as outlined in “Creating Shareholder Value,” addresses the conflict between corporate managers (agents) and shareholders (principals) by advocating for the alignment of managerial incentives with shareholder interests. Rappaport emphasizes that the primary goal of a corporation should be to maximize shareholder value through strategic planning, effective capital allocation, and performance metrics like economic value added (EVA) rather than traditional accounting measures. By promoting strong corporate governance, transparent communication, and incentive-based compensation, Rappaport’s theory aims to mitigate the agency problem and ensure long-term value creation for shareholders.
  • Agile vs. Waterfall — 2 distinct methodologies or philosophies of project and product management: agile is more iterative and collaborative, while waterfall is more sequential and linear in nature.
  • Alchemy — The medieval progenitor of the science of chemistry, based on the misguided ambition of transforming matter — often specifically the transmuting of base metals into gold.
  • Ambiguity aversion — A preference for known risks over unknown risks.
  • Analysis paralysis — The inability to make a decision because of over-thinking a problem, and becoming paralized by too much data and/or too many options to consider.
  • Anarcho-capitalism — A political philosophy that claims governments are not needed, only private property rights.
  • Anchoring effect — A cognitive bias where individuals rely too heavily on an initial piece of information (the “anchor”) when making decisions, even if it’s unrelated to the decision at hand.
  • Anecdotal vs. statistical — Anecdotal evidence refers to personal stories or isolated examples that people often use to illustrate or support a point, whereas statistical evidence involves data and analysis from systematic research or studies, providing a broader, more generalizable understanding of a topic.
  • Anocracy — A hybrid form of government blending democracy and dictatorship, in which some public participation is available, but not a full set of mechanisms for addressing civic grievances.
  • Antifragility — Systems that benefit from fragility; achieves growth from volatility (Nassim Taleb).
  • Arete — Excellence in moral virtue (ancient Greece).
  • Arrow of time — The concept that time seems to flow in a single direction from the past to the future, characterized by the growth of entropy and the irreversible progression of physical processes.
  • Arrow’s Theorem — Social-choice paradox showing the flaws of ranked voting systems.
  • Arrested development — A stoppage of physical or psychological development, leading to an individual’s failure to achieve the milestones typically associated with a certain life stage, often due to psychological or environmental factors.
  • Asch Experiments — Set of experiments showing that people can be social pressured into conforming a lot more easily and often than we might imagine.
  • Askers vs. Guessers — Cultural metaphor sorting people into two buckets: Askers will simply ask for anything they like, expecting that sometimes the answer will be “No.” Guessers will rarely ask for something if they feel the answer might be No, and dislike being put in the position of saying No to an Asker.
  • Asymptote — A curve that approaches the value of a line on a graph but never reaches it.
  • Attention restoration theory — concept that nature replenishes our ability to concentrate and pay attention.
  • Austrian School economics — An outdated school of economic thought that emphasizes the spontaneous organizing power of the price mechanism and holds that the complexity of subjective human choices makes mathematical modeling of the evolving market practically impossible.
  • Authoritarian personality — A psychological concept describing individuals who exhibit a strong adherence to conformity, authority, and rigid structure, often leading to prejudice and an intolerance for ambiguity.
  • Availability heuristic — A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision, leading to a biased judgment based on recent information or personal experience.
  • Avogadro’s Number — 6.022 X 10^23, the number of atoms or molecules in a mole, the base unit of measurement for an equivalent amount of a substance in chemistry.
  • Banality of evil — The concept of the “banality of evil,” coined by philosopher Hannah Arendt, describes the phenomenon where ordinary individuals commit heinous acts without evil intent, often through a lack of critical thinking and a blind adherence to orders or norms. This idea emerged from Arendt’s observations during the trial of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi bureaucrat who facilitated the Holocaust by following orders and bureaucratic processes without question.
  • Banana republic — A banana republic is a politically unstable country with an economy dependent on the export of a single resource, often controlled by foreign corporations. This term typically implies corruption, exploitation, and a lack of democratic governance.
  • Bandwagon effect — A psychological phenomenon where people adopt beliefs or behaviors simply because others are doing so, often driven by the desire to conform or fit in.
  • Basic Goodness — Shambhala Buddhist concept of basic human worthiness in people of all faiths, colors, and varieties.
  • Bayes’ Theorem — Bayes’ Theorem is a fundamental concept in probability theory that allows you to update the probability of a hypothesis as more evidence or information becomes available.
  • Begging the question — A logical fallacy in which an argument’s premise assumes the truth of the conclusion instead of providing evidence for it. Essentially, the argument circles back on itself without proving anything, often rephrasing the conclusion as part of the proof.
  • Bellwether — Metaphor taken from the practice of using a castrated sheep (a “wether”) outfitted with a bell, that indicates in which direction the herd is going to be travelling. A bellweather is said to be predictive of the trends to come.
  • Bias — A systematic inclination or prejudice in favor of or against something, often leading to unfair or distorted judgments or decisions.
  • Big Rocks First — A time-management concept that emphasizes prioritizing the most important tasks (the “big rocks”) before focusing on smaller, less critical tasks. By addressing the key priorities first, you ensure that what matters most gets accomplished, even when other minor tasks (the “pebbles” and “sand”) compete for attention.
  • Bikeshedding — a tendency to devote a disproportionate amount of available time to the more trivial and inconsequential matters, while giving short shrift to the most important topics or activities (aka Parkinson’s law of triviality)
  • Bin stacking problem — A combinatorial optimization problem where the goal is to efficiently pack a set of objects of varying sizes into a limited number of bins or containers, minimizing the number of bins used or maximizing space utilization. It is often encountered in logistics, manufacturing, and computer science.
  • Black and white thinking — Black and white thinking, also known as dichotomous or polarized thinking, is a cognitive distortion where people perceive situations, events, or people in extremes, such as all good or all bad, without recognizing the complexities and nuances in between. This type of thinking can lead to rigid and overly simplistic views, often resulting in emotional distress and conflict in personal and professional relationships.
  • Black Swan Theory — A framework by mathematical statistician Nassim Nicholas Taleb for understanding rare, unpredictable events that have a massive impact, often missed by conventional risk assessments due to their infrequency and the illusion of predictability.
  • Blind spot — A cognitive bias where individuals fail to recognize their own flaws or limitations, often leading to missed risks or opportunities in decision-making.
  • Blockchain — A decentralized digital ledger technology that records transactions across many computers securely, preventing retroactive tampering or fraud. The backbone of the cryptocurrency industry.
  • Body mass index (BMI) — A measure of body fat based on a person’s weight in relation to their height, used as a general indicator of healthy body weight.
  • Boiling frog syndrome — A metaphor for the inability to detect gradual changes in an environment or situation, which eventually leads to detrimental outcomes if left unchecked.
  • Bounded economics — A concept rooted in bounded rationality, where economic decision-making is constrained by limitations in information, cognitive abilities, and time. Rather than making perfectly rational choices, individuals and organizations operate within these boundaries, often opting for satisfactory solutions rather than optimal ones (see also: satisficing).
  • Bounded rationality — A concept that suggests individuals make decisions with limited information and cognitive resources, leading to suboptimal choices despite rational intent.
  • Brainwashing — A process of coercive persuasion and undue influence where an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors are manipulated through psychological or physical pressure.
  • Bricolage — the creation of art or other creative work from a diverse range of materials and/or influences.
  • Broken Windows Theory — A criminological theory that suggests visible signs of disorder and neglect, such as broken windows, can encourage further crime and anti-social behavior.
  • Burden of proof — The obligation to provide sufficient evidence to support a claim, typically resting on the party that brings the argument or accusation.
  • Busy work — Tasks that keep someone occupied but do not contribute meaningful value or progress toward important goals, often used to create the illusion of productivity.
  • Butterfly effect — A concept from chaos theory that suggests small changes in initial conditions can lead to vastly different outcomes, highlighting the interconnectedness of complex systems.
  • Bystander effect — A social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency situation when others are present, often due to diffusion of responsibility.
  • Calvinism — Ideology of a Christian sect known for their fastidious work habits.
  • Campbell’s Law — The more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decision-making, the more subject it will be to corruption pressures, and the more apt it will be to distort and corrupt the social processes it’s intended to monitor. (see also: Goodhart’s Law)
  • Casino capitalism — Casino capitalism refers to an economic system where high-risk financial activities, such as speculative investments and trading, dominate over productive investments in goods and services. This term critiques how financial markets operate like casinos, prioritizing short-term gains and speculative profits over long-term economic stability and growth.
  • Catalyst — In a broad sense, a catalyst is something or someone that initiates or accelerates significant change or action without being consumed or altered in the process. In chemistry, it refers to a substance that speeds up a reaction without being used up itself. Similarly, in social or organizational contexts, a catalyst can be an event, person, or idea that sparks transformative progress or change.
  • Categorical imperative — Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, stating that one should behave only in ways they would want to be universal (see also: Golden Rule; ideal universal principle)
  • Cathexis — allocating one’s mental or emotional energy to a person, idea, or object, perhaps to an unhealthy degree psychologically.
  • Causa-sui project — A term from existential psychology, particularly in the work of Ernest Becker, referring to an individual’s attempt to create meaning and purpose in life by becoming their own cause or creator. It reflects the desire for self-determination and immortality through personal achievements, values, or legacy, as a way to confront the fear of death and insignificance.
  • Causation — The relationship between cause and effect, where one event (the cause) directly leads to another event (the effect). In this relationship, changes in the cause are responsible for producing changes in the effect, distinguishing it from mere correlation, where two events may happen together without one necessarily causing the other.
  • Central Limit Theorem — mathematical proof showing that any large enough sample size of a population will exhibit a Normal Distribution Curve (aka Bell Curve) for any independently-measured traits.
  • Central tendency — A statistical concept that refers to the measure used to determine the center of a data set or the typical value. Common measures of central tendency include the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value), each providing a way to summarize data by identifying its central point.
  • Ceteris paribus — A Latin phrase meaning “all other things being equal.” It is used in economics and other fields to analyze the effect of one variable on another while assuming that all other relevant factors remain constant. This helps isolate the impact of a single change in a complex system, similar to the scientific method.
  • Chaos Theory — A branch of mathematics and science that studies complex systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, where small changes can lead to vastly different outcomes. Often summarized by the “butterfly effect,” it highlights the unpredictability and non-linear behavior in dynamic systems like weather, ecosystems, or markets.
  • Chekhov’s Gun — Literary principle stating that the details of a story should have purpose, and extraneous details omitted.
  • Chesterton’s Fence — A principle that argues one should not remove or change an existing structure or system (the “fence”) without first understanding why it was put in place. It encourages caution in making changes, emphasizing the importance of understanding the original purpose before dismissing it as unnecessary.
  • Clustering illusion — A cognitive bias where people perceive patterns or clusters in random data, believing that random events are actually related or follow a specific pattern, even when they do not. This bias often leads to overinterpreting coincidences or sequences in data as meaningful.
  • Cocoon — Shambhala Buddhist conceptualization of a sort of psychic armor we wear that cuts us off from others in the name of self-protection. The discipline advises one to shed that armor.
  • Cognitive extension — Cognitive extension refers to the idea that human cognitive processes can extend beyond the brain to include external tools and environments, such as technology and written language, which enhance and support our mental capabilities. This concept suggests that our minds are not confined within our heads but are instead part of a broader system involving interaction with our surroundings.
  • Collective action — A coordinated effort by a group of individuals to achieve a common goal or address a shared issue, often requiring cooperation and collaboration. It plays a crucial role in social, political, and economic contexts, especially when individual actions alone are insufficient to effect meaningful change.
  • Collective effervescence — sociological concept of Γ‰mile Durkheim to describe when a community or society comes together and bonds over the same thought, theme, message, or action.
  • Collective hysteria — A psychological phenomenon where a group of people experiences shared irrational fear, panic, or exaggerated emotions, often spreading quickly through social contagion. This can result in mass panic or delusional beliefs, even in the absence of real danger or evidence, and is typically fueled by rumor, stress, or social dynamics. Also called “moral panic” (examples: the Salem Witch Trials; Satanic Panic of the 1980s).
  • Collective narcissism — A belief held by members of a group that their group is superior and deserves special treatment, often accompanied by hypersensitivity to criticism or perceived threats. This inflated sense of group identity can lead to hostility toward outsiders and defensive, aggressive behavior to protect the group’s image. (example: white supremacy)
  • Command responsibility — Command responsibility is a legal doctrine in military and international law that holds superiors accountable for crimes committed by their subordinates when they knew or should have known about the actions and failed to prevent or punish them. This principle aims to ensure accountability within the hierarchy of command and is crucial in prosecuting war crimes and crimes against humanity.
  • Compound interest — The process by which interest is calculated on both the initial principal and the accumulated interest from previous periods. This results in exponential growth over time, as interest continues to be added to the total amount, making it a powerful concept in finance and investment.
  • Condorcet Jury Theorem — mathematical proof showing that if each person on the jury gets it right more than 50% of the time, as numbers get larger the jury as a whole approaches 100% justice. Greatly inspired James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and the Framers of the Constitution.
  • Confidence game — Also known as a “con,” it is a deceptive scheme in which a person or group gains the trust of a victim to defraud them, typically by manipulating their emotions or exploiting their desire for gain. The success of the con relies on the victim’s misplaced confidence in the perpetrator.
  • Confirmation bias — Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs or opinions. This cognitive bias leads individuals to favor information that supports their views while disregarding or undervaluing evidence that contradicts them. (see also: motivated reasoning)
  • Conformity — Conformity is the act of aligning one’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors with those of a group or social norm, often due to the desire for acceptance or to avoid conflict. It can be driven by both explicit social pressure and internalized expectations of societal standards.
  • Conservation of energy — A principle in physics stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. The total energy in a closed system remains constant over time.
  • Conservation of mass — A fundamental concept in chemistry that states mass in a closed system remains constant, regardless of the processes acting inside the system, as matter cannot be created nor destroyed.
  • Conservation of momentum — A physics principle asserting that the total momentum of a closed system remains constant if no external forces act on it, meaning momentum is conserved during collisions or other interactions.
  • Conspiracy theory — A belief or explanation suggesting that events or situations are the result of a covert, often sinister, group acting in secret (usually a global cabal), typically lacking substantial evidence and ignoring alternative explanations.
  • Contagion heuristic — A cognitive shortcut where individuals believe that objects or people can transfer their essence or properties through physical or symbolic contact, often resulting in irrational fears or beliefs about contamination.
  • Conway’s Game of Life — Conway’s Game of Life is a cellular automaton invented by mathematician John Conway in 1970. It consists of a grid of cells that can either be alive or dead, and the cells evolve in steps based on a set of simple rules related to their neighbors. These rules simulate the birth, death, or survival of cells and can lead to complex, unpredictable patterns, making it a famous example of how simple rules can produce emergent behavior and complexity.
  • Correlation — A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables move together. A positive correlation means they increase or decrease together, while a negative correlation means they move in opposite directions, but correlation does not imply causation.
  • Corruption — The abuse of power or position for personal gain, often involving bribery, fraud, or unethical behavior, undermining trust in institutions or systems.
  • Counterfactual thinking — The mental process of imagining alternative outcomes to events that have already occurred, often by asking “what if” questions to explore how different actions might have led to different results.
  • Countervailing power — A concept in economics and politics where one group or institution balances the power of another, often to prevent monopolies or ensure fair competition and representation.
  • Creative destruction — A term popularized by economist Joseph Schumpeter, referring to the process by which new innovations disrupt and replace outdated industries or technologies, fostering economic progress through continuous renewal.
  • Crimes against humanity — Crimes against humanity are severe, widespread, and systematic acts committed against civilians, such as murder, enslavement, torture, and persecution, typically during times of war or conflict. These crimes are considered violations of international law and are prosecuted by bodies like the International Criminal Court (ICC).
  • Critical mass — The minimum size or number of participants required for a particular action or event to take off and sustain itself, often used in social movements, markets, or nuclear physics.
  • Critical Race Theory — An advanced academic framework that examines how laws and institutions perpetuate racial inequalities and explores the intersection of race, power, and society, often challenging dominant perspectives on race and justice.
  • Crossing symmetry — in particle physics, the fact that any particle interaction observed can be anticipated to be replicable with that particle’s antiparticle.
  • Crowdfunding — A method of raising small amounts of money from a large number of people, typically via the internet, to fund a project, business, or cause.
  • Crowd psychology — The study of how individuals behave differently when they are part of a large group, often leading to irrational or emotional actions influenced by group dynamics rather than personal decision-making.
  • Crowdsourcing — The practice of obtaining input, ideas, or services from a large, diverse group of people, usually via the internet, to solve problems or complete tasks more efficiently.
  • Cryptocurrency — A digital or virtual form of currency that uses cryptography for secure transactions, operates on decentralized networks based on blockchain technology, and is typically not controlled by any central authority, such as a government or bank. Popular examples include Bitcoin and Ethereum.
  • Cult of personality — A situation where a public figure, often a political leader, uses media, propaganda, or other methods to create an idealized, heroic, and worshipful image, fostering uncritical admiration and loyalty from the public.
  • Current moment bias — A cognitive bias where people give disproportionate weight to immediate rewards or benefits, often at the expense of long-term gains or future consequences.
  • Cybernetics — Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary field that studies systems, control, and communication in animals, machines, and organizations, focusing on how feedback loops and information flow regulate behavior and maintain stability in complex systems.
  • Dark Triad — A group of three personality traitsβ€”narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathyβ€”characterized by manipulative, self-centered, and exploitative behavior. Individuals exhibiting the Dark Triad traits often seek personal gain with little regard for others, showing tendencies toward deceit, grandiosity, and a lack of empathy.
  • DARVO — DARVO stands for Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender, a tactic commonly used by abusers when confronted with their behavior. First, they deny the wrongdoing, then attack the person who brought up the issue, and finally reverse the roles to portray themselves as the victim while casting the accuser as the offender. It’s often used in contexts of manipulation and gaslighting.
  • Dead hand of the past — The idea that outdated rules, laws, or decisions continue to exert control over present situations, limiting progress or adaptation to new circumstances.
  • Decision tree — A visual or analytical model used to map out decisions and their potential outcomes, helping to systematically analyze different paths and consequences in decision-making.
  • Democratic socialism — A political ideology that combines democratic principles, such as free elections and civil liberties, with socialist economic policies that emphasize social ownership and equitable distribution of wealth and resources.
  • Denial / denialism — The refusal to accept reality or established facts, often in the face of overwhelming evidence, typically due to psychological defense mechanisms or ideological reasons. Denialism specifically refers to the systematic rejection of consensus on controversial issues (e.g., climate change, evolution).
  • Deontology — Deontology is a moral philosophy that emphasizes duty, rules, and obligations as the foundation of ethical behavior. It asserts that actions are morally right or wrong based on adherence to these principles, regardless of the outcomes.
  • Derivatives — Derivatives are financial instruments whose value is derived from underlying assets, such as stocks, bonds, or commodities. They are often used for hedging risk or speculative purposes in markets.
  • Despotism — Despotism refers to a form of government where a single authority wields absolute power, often ruling through oppression and without regard for the will of the people. This concentration of unchecked authority frequently leads to abuses of power and a lack of individual freedoms.
  • Determinism — Determinism is the philosophical idea that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes in a cause-and-effect chain. According to this view, free will is an illusion, as everything is a consequence of preceding events and conditions.
  • Devil you know — The phrase “devil you know” refers to the idea that a familiar problem or undesirable situation may be preferable to an unknown one. It suggests that people often choose to stick with a known difficulty rather than risk encountering something worse.
  • Dichotomy of control — Stoic idea that we should divide the world into things under our control (intentions, efforts) vs. things not in our control (external rewards), and hew to the former vs. the latter for our self-esteem and happiness.
  • Diminishing Marginal Utility (DMU) — Diminishing Marginal Utility is an economic principle stating that as a person consumes additional units of a good or service, the satisfaction (utility) gained from each additional unit decreases. In other words, the first unit of consumption provides more utility than the second, and the second more than the third, and so on.
  • Discounting positives — Discounting positives is a cognitive bias where individuals downplay or dismiss positive events or attributes, often focusing on negative aspects instead. This can distort perceptions and lead to a pessimistic outlook, even when evidence of success or value is present.
  • Disjunction fallacy — The disjunction fallacy occurs when people wrongly assume that the probability of a disjunction (two or more events happening) is less than the probability of one of the individual events, despite logical rules suggesting otherwise. This mistake in reasoning can skew judgments and decision-making.
  • Distributions — In statistics, distributions refer to the way values or data points are spread out or arranged within a dataset. Common types of distributions include normal, skewed, and uniform, each describing different patterns of data behavior.
  • Diversity — Diversity refers to the inclusion and representation of different perspectives, backgrounds, identities, or viewpoints within a group or system. It is often considered beneficial for fostering innovation, creativity, and broader understanding.
  • Domain dependence — Domain dependence refers to the tendency for people’s reasoning or behavior to change depending on the context or “domain” of a problem, even if the underlying logic is the same. This can lead to inconsistencies in decision-making across different areas of life.
  • Doublethink — Doublethink, a concept from George Orwell’s 1984, is the act of holding two contradictory beliefs simultaneously and accepting both as true. It reflects the capacity for cognitive dissonance in environments of intense ideological control or propaganda.
  • Drake Equation — The Drake Equation is a probabilistic formula used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. It considers factors such as the rate of star formation, the fraction of those stars with planetary systems, the number of planets that could support life, and the likelihood of life evolving into intelligent beings capable of communication.
  • Dr. Fox Effect — The Dr. Fox effect refers to a phenomenon where an engaging and expressive presenter can make a lecture appear informative and satisfying, even if the content is nonsensical or lacking in substance. This effect highlights the power of delivery and presentation skills in shaping perceptions of credibility and knowledge.
  • Dunbar Number — The Dunbar Number refers to the cognitive limit to the number of stable social relationships an individual can maintain, typically estimated at around 150 people.
  • Dunning-Kruger Effect — The Dunning-Kruger Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals with low ability or knowledge in a particular area overestimate their competence, while highly skilled individuals may underestimate their relative expertise.
  • Duverger’s Law — Duverger’s Law is a political theory that in first-past-the-post electoral systems, like the U.S., a two-party system is likely to emerge, as smaller parties struggle to gain representation.
  • Easterlin Paradox — named for economist Richard Easterlin, who observed that rising material prosperity in countries doesn’t necessarily lead to greater levels of reported well-being.
  • Echo chamber — An echo chamber is a situation in which people are exposed only to information, opinions, or beliefs that reinforce their own views, often amplifying confirmation bias and limiting exposure to differing perspectives.
  • Edge of chaos — at the border between order and disorder; a frontier of transition space. A concept from complexity theory describing a transitional space between order and disorder, where systems exhibit the most adaptability and potential for innovation.
  • Efficiency — Efficiency refers to the optimal use of resources to achieve the desired outcome with minimal waste, energy, or time.
  • Electromagnetic spectrum — The Electromagnetic Spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation, from low-frequency radio waves to high-frequency gamma rays, including visible light, microwaves, and X-rays.
  • Electron cloud — An electron cloud refers to the probabilistic distribution of where an electron is likely to be found around an atom’s nucleus, based on quantum mechanics, rather than a fixed orbit.
  • Elephant and rider — The Elephant and Rider metaphor describes the relationship between the emotional (elephant) and rational (rider) parts of the human mind, suggesting that emotional impulses often dominate but can be guided by rational thought.
  • Ellsberg paradox — The Ellsberg Paradox highlights people’s preference for known risks over unknown risks, even when the known risk may have a lower expected value, challenging the predictions of traditional economic decision theory.
  • Elsewhere Disease — being convinced that the Real Story is not Here: Here is too boring by far. It’s small and provincial and known already (or so we believe). Excitement is for somewhere far away and exotic.
  • Emotional abuse — Emotional abuse is a form of psychological manipulation where one person uses words, actions, or behavior to control, demean, or intimidate another, leading to emotional harm and a loss of self-worth in the victim.
  • Emotional intelligence — Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and influence one’s own emotions as well as the emotions of others, fostering better interpersonal relationships and decision-making.
  • Emotional labor — Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild introduced the concept of emotional labor in her seminal book “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling” (1983). Emotional labor refers to the process by which workers manage their emotions to fulfill the emotional requirements of their job. This concept has had a profound impact on understanding the roles and challenges faced by workers in service-oriented industries.
  • Emotional reasoning — Emotional reasoning is a cognitive distortion where individuals assume that their emotional reactions reflect objective reality, often leading them to believe that feelings of fear, guilt, or inadequacy are factual, rather than subjective experiences.
  • Emperor’s new clothes — The phrase “Emperor’s new clothes” comes from a Hans Christian Andersen story and refers to a situation where people are afraid to speak the truth about something, often for fear of seeming foolish, even when it is plainly obvious that something is wrong or false.
  • End Times — End Times refer to eschatological beliefs about the final events of the world or human history, often associated with apocalyptic or religious prophecies regarding the destruction of the world and the ultimate judgment.
  • Entropy — Entropy, in thermodynamics, is a measure of disorder or randomness in a system, where systems tend to move from order to disorder over time. In information theory, it represents the unpredictability or uncertainty of information content.
  • Epistemic warfare — Epistemic warfare involves the deliberate manipulation or disruption of knowledge, truth, and belief systems, often through disinformation or propaganda, to control public perception and weaken opponents’ ability to make informed decisions.
  • E pluribus unum — one out of many, a Latin phrase used on the United States dollar to represent the founding ideals of Thomas Jefferson masterfully explained in the Declaration of Independence, that all men are created equal.
  • Equality under law — Equality under law is the principle that all individuals, regardless of their status, race, gender, or other characteristics, are subject to the same legal codes and entitled to equal protection and treatment by the legal system. It ensures that no one is above the law and that justice is applied uniformly.
  • Equilibrium — Equilibrium refers to a state of balance in a system where opposing forces or influences are equal, resulting in no net change. In economics, it describes a condition where market supply and demand are balanced; in physics, it denotes a situation where all acting forces cancel each other out.
  • Equity — Equity involves fairness and justice in the way people are treated, striving to provide equal opportunities and address imbalances. In finance, equity represents ownership interest in a company or asset after liabilities are accounted for, such as shareholder equity.
  • Eschaton — The eschaton refers to the end of the world or the final event in the divine plan, often associated with ultimate judgment or the arrival of a new era in religious eschatology. In theology, it marks the culmination of history, where cosmic or spiritual events bring about the fulfillment of prophecy.
  • Estate tax — An estate tax is a levy imposed on the net value of a deceased person’s assets before distribution to their heirs. It is typically applied by governments on wealth transfers that exceed a certain exemption threshold at the time of death.
  • Eternal Rome — “Eternal Rome” refers to the enduring legacy and historical significance of Rome as a city and former empire, symbolizing its lasting impact on culture, law, architecture, and governance throughout Western civilization. The term highlights Rome’s influence that persists across centuries.
  • Ethics — Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles, guiding what is right and wrong behavior. The term originates from the Greek word “ethikos,” meaning character, and is closely related to the Latin “moralis,” meaning customs or habits.
  • Eucatastrophe — Eucatastrophe is a term coined by author J.R.R. Tolkien to describe a sudden and favorable turn of events in a story, leading from impending disaster to a happy ending. It represents a dramatic reversal where a catastrophe unexpectedly resolves positively.
  • Event horizon — An event horizon is the boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which nothing can escape, not even light, due to the immense gravitational pull. It marks the point of no return in spacetime, separating observable events from those that cannot affect an outside observer.
  • Exception handling — Exception handling refers to the process of responding to and managing unexpected or anomalous events that disrupt normal operations in computing or organizational processes. It involves identifying, addressing, and resolving edge cases or novel issues to maintain functionality.
  • Expected value — Expected value is a statistical concept that calculates the average outcome of a random variable over numerous trials, weighted by their probabilities. It provides a measure of the central tendency, helping to predict long-term results in probabilistic situations.
  • Extrapolation — Extrapolation is the method of estimating unknown values by extending or projecting from known data points beyond the established range. It assumes that existing patterns or trends will continue, allowing predictions in new or future contexts.
  • Extremism — Extremism refers to holding radical views or beliefs that are far outside the accepted norms of society, often advocating drastic political, religious, or social changes. Such views can lead to actions that challenge or undermine established systems and may pose risks to societal stability.
  • Fact-Value Problem — Arose from philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) and the is-ought problem in moral philosophy. It refers to the challenge of distinguishing between descriptive statements (what is) and prescriptive or normative statements (what ought to be) in philosophical discourse. It highlights the difficulty in deriving ethical or moral conclusions directly from factual premises. (see also: naturalistic fallacy, moralistic fallacy)
  • False cause — False cause is a logical fallacy where someone mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event caused the second, without properly establishing a causal link between them. This is also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc.
  • False consensus effect — The false consensus effect is a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which their beliefs, values, or behaviors are shared by others, assuming that most people think or act the same way they do.
  • False flag — A false flag is a deceptive act where a person, group, or state carries out an attack or operation and falsely attributes it to another party, often to justify retaliation or manipulation of public opinion.
  • Fate — Fate refers to the belief that events are predetermined and inevitable, often attributed to supernatural or cosmic forces beyond human control. It suggests that a person’s life or outcomes are fixed, and cannot be altered by individual actions or choices.
  • Fear of Death — The fear of death, also known as thanatophobia, refers to the anxiety or dread that individuals experience when contemplating their mortality or the end of their existence, often influencing behavior and philosophical outlooks.
  • Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance — Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance posits that when individuals experience conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, they feel psychological discomfort, which motivates them to reduce the inconsistency, often by changing one of the elements involved.
  • Fiat currency — Fiat currency is money that has no intrinsic value and is not backed by a physical commodity like gold or silver; its value is derived from the government declaring it as legal tender, which relies on trust in the issuing authority.
  • Fiduciary duty — Fiduciary duty is the legal or ethical responsibility of one party, often a trustee or financial advisor, to act in the best interests of another party, prioritizing their client’s welfare above their own personal gains.
  • Fifth column — A fifth column refers to a group of secret sympathizers or collaborators within a country or organization who work to undermine it from within, typically in favor of an external enemy or opposing force.
  • Filibuster — A filibuster is a political strategy used in legislative bodies, particularly in the U.S. Senate, where a senator prolongs debate or prevents a vote on a bill by speaking for an extended time (now replaced by the “silent filibuster”), often to delay or block its passage.
  • First fit algorithm — The first fit algorithm is a simple method for solving the bin packing problem by placing each item into the first available bin that has enough remaining space, without rearranging or looking for the most optimal placement.
  • First past the post — First past the post is an electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they have a majority of the votes. It is often used in single-member district systems and tends to favor two-party competition.
  • Focusing illusion — The focusing illusion is a cognitive bias where people place disproportionate importance on one aspect of a situation, causing them to misjudge its overall impact on their happiness or well-being. It often leads to overestimating how much a specific factor will affect future outcomes.
  • Force multiplier — Force multipliers are tools to help amplify the amount of work you’re able to do. A force multiplier is a strategy or resource that increases the effectiveness and productivity of an individual or group, allowing them to accomplish more with the same amount of effort or resources.
  • Fortune-telling — Fortune-telling is a cognitive distortion where a person predicts negative outcomes for events or situations without any concrete evidence, assuming the worst will happen as if it were a certainty.
  • Fractals — Fractals are complex geometric shapes that can be split into parts, each of which is a reduced-scale copy of the whole, exhibiting self-similarity across different scales. They are found in nature, such as in snowflakes, coastlines, and plants.
fractals
  • Free markets — Free markets are economic systems where prices, production, and distribution of goods and services are determined by supply and demand with minimal government intervention, allowing businesses and consumers to operate freely.
  • Framing effects — Framing effects refer to the way information is presented or “framed,” which can influence decision-making and judgment. The same information can lead to different reactions depending on how it is worded or structured.
  • Fredkin’s paradox — Fredkin’s paradox suggests that in decision-making, the closer two choices are in their value or impact, the more time people tend to spend trying to decide between them, even though the decision ultimately has little consequence.
  • Free will — Free will is the philosophical concept that individuals have the ability to make choices and decisions independently of external forces or predetermined fate, allowing them to act according to their own volition.
  • Friendship paradox — The friendship paradox is the observation that, on average, most people have fewer friends than their friends do. This occurs because individuals with more friends are more likely to be part of other people’s social networks.
  • FUBAR’d — FUBAR (short for “F*cked Up Beyond All Recognition/Repair”) is a slang term often used to describe a situation, object, or system that has been so thoroughly ruined or corrupted that it is nearly impossible to fix. It is typically used in informal or military contexts to emphasize extreme dysfunction or chaos.
  • FUD — FUD (Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt) refers to a strategy used to manipulate public perception by spreading fear, uncertainty, and doubt about a competitor, product, or situation to influence decisions or create distrust.
  • Fundamental Attribution Error — The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underemphasize situational factors when interpreting others’ behavior, assuming that actions reflect innate traits rather than external circumstances.
  • Gambler’s fallacy — The gambler’s fallacy is the mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than expected during a given period, it is less likely to happen in the future, or vice versa, despite each event being independent (e.g., flipping a coin).
  • Game theory — Game theory is a mathematical framework for analyzing strategic interactions between individuals or groups, where the outcomes depend on the decisions of all participants. It is used in economics, political science, and other fields to study competition and cooperation.
  • Gaslighting — Gaslighting is a form of psychological manipulation in which a person or group makes someone question their own perception, memory, or sanity, often to control or deceive them.
  • GDP — GDP, or Gross Domestic Product, is the total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific period, typically used as a measure of economic performance and growth.
  • General relativity — General relativity is Albert Einstein’s theory of gravity, describing how massive objects warp the fabric of spacetime, causing other objects to move along curved paths. It revolutionized our understanding of gravity, predicting phenomena like black holes, gravitational waves, and the bending of light near massive objects.
  • Geronticide — Geronticide is the intentional act of killing elderly people, often motivated by societal or economic pressures to reduce the perceived burden of an aging population. This term can also refer to the neglect or harmful policies that lead to premature deaths among the elderly.
  • Golden Mean — In philosophy, the Golden Mean is the desirable middle ground between two extremes, as famously advocated by Aristotle. It emphasizes balance and moderation in all aspects of life to achieve virtue.
  • Golden Rule — The Golden Rule is the ethical principle of treating others as you would like to be treated. It is a universal concept found in many cultures and religions, advocating empathy and reciprocity.
  • Goldilocks Zone — The Goldilocks Zone refers to the habitable zone around a star where conditions are “just right” for life, not too hot or too cold. It’s the range in which liquid water can exist on a planet’s surface, critical for sustaining life as we know it.
  • Gold standard — The gold standard is a monetary system in which a country’s currency or paper money has a value directly linked to gold. Countries adhering to this standard maintain a fixed exchange rate between their currency and a specific amount of gold.
  • Goodheart’s Law — Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure. This reflects how metrics used to manage a system are often manipulated, leading to unintended outcomes. i.e. anything that can be measured and rewarded will be gamed. (see also: Campbell’s Law)
  • Gravitational waves — Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime caused by massive objects accelerating, such as colliding black holes. First predicted by Einstein’s theory of general relativity, they were directly detected in 2015, offering a new way to observe the universe.
  • Gravity — Gravity is the force of attraction that pulls objects with mass toward each other. It governs the motion of celestial bodies and is responsible for keeping planets, moons, and satellites in orbit.
  • Great Man Theory — The Great Man Theory posits that history is shaped by the impact of influential individuals, typically men of extraordinary intelligence, charisma, or leadership. This idea has been largely critiqued in favor of more complex views of historical causality.
  • Great Replacement Theory — The Great Replacement Theory is a racist and far-right conspiracy theory that suggests a deliberate attempt to replace the white population with immigrants or minorities. It has been used to fuel xenophobia and nationalist sentiments.
  • Greenwashing — Greenwashing is the deceptive practice where a company or organization exaggerates or falsely advertises its environmental efforts or sustainability to appear more eco-friendly than it truly is. It aims to mislead consumers into believing that products or practices are environmentally responsible, while the actual impact may be minimal or harmful.
  • Groundhog Day — Groundhog Day refers to the feeling of experiencing the same situation repeatedly, often with frustration. It’s named after the 1993 Bill Murray film, where the protagonist relives the same day over and over again.
  • Groupthink — Groupthink occurs when a group prioritizes consensus and harmony over critical thinking, leading to poor decision-making. It can suppress dissenting opinions and encourage flawed or risky choices by stifling debate.
  • Habeas corpus — Habeas corpus is a legal principle that protects individuals from unlawful detention, requiring authorities to present sufficient cause for holding a person in custody. It ensures the right to a fair trial and protects against arbitrary imprisonment.
  • Habitus — Habitus, a concept developed by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, refers to the ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals acquire through life experience. It reflects the influence of social structures on individual behaviors and perceptions.
  • Halo effect — The halo effect is a cognitive bias where an overall positive impression of a person or thing influences one’s judgment of their other traits or abilities. For example, someone seen as attractive may also be perceived as more intelligent or capable.
  • Hanlon’s Razor — Hanlon’s Razor is an adage that advises not to attribute to malice what can be explained by incompetence or ignorance. It encourages assuming simpler explanations, like error or misunderstanding, over intentional harm.
  • Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle — The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics, states that it is impossible to simultaneously know both the exact position and exact momentum of a particle. The more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other can be determined.
  • Herd behavior — Herd behavior refers to the tendency of individuals to mimic the actions or decisions of a larger group, often without independent thought. This phenomenon is common in markets, crowds, and social movements, sometimes leading to irrational or harmful outcomes.
  • Heuristics — Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making. While they help people make quick judgments, they can also lead to biases and errors in reasoning.
  • Hierarchy vs. Fairness — This concept refers to the tension between hierarchical structures, which organize society or institutions based on rank and power, and fairness, which demands equal treatment and justice. These forces often clash in discussions about leadership, meritocracy, and social equity.
  • Higgs boson — The Higgs boson is a subatomic particle associated with the Higgs field, which gives other particles their mass. Its discovery in 2012 at CERN confirmed a critical part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
  • Hitting rock bottom — “Hitting rock bottom” describes reaching the lowest point in someone’s life, often a crisis that precedes recovery. It represents a turning point where an individual realizes the need for change.
  • Hofstadter’s Law — Hofstadter’s Law states that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for Hofstadter’s Law itself. It highlights the difficulty of accurately estimating time in complex projects or tasks.
  • Horseshoe Theory — Horseshoe Theory suggests that the political far-left and far-right, while appearing diametrically opposed, often exhibit similar behaviors and ideologies. It implies that extremism at both ends of the spectrum can resemble each other more than centrism.
  • Hostile Media Theory — Hostile Media Theory, proposed by Ross & Lepper, suggests that individuals with strong opinions on a topic perceive media coverage as biased against their position, regardless of the actual neutrality of the content. This bias is amplified in polarized environments.
  • How many angels can dance on the head of a pin? — This phrase refers to a medieval theological debate about how many angels could fit on a pin’s head, used today to mock overly speculative or trivial discussions. It implies focusing on irrelevant details instead of practical concerns.
  • Hydra — In mythology, the Hydra is a serpent-like monster with many heads, and when one head is cut off, two more grow in its place. It symbolizes problems that become worse when addressed incorrectly or superficially, as well as persistent challenges.
  • Iatrogenics — Iatrogenics refers to harm caused by medical intervention or treatment, where the cure may be worse than the disease. It highlights the risks of overintervention and the unintended consequences of well-meaning actions in complex systems. (Nassim Taleb is a good source on this)
  • Id, ego, superego — Sigmund Freud’s structural model of the psyche consists of the id (the primal, instinctual part of the mind driven by desires), the ego (the rational, decision-making part that mediates between the id and reality), and the superego (the moral conscience shaped by societal norms). Together, they explain human behavior and inner conflict.
  • Identifiable Victim Effect — The identifiable victim effect is a psychological phenomenon where people are more likely to empathize with and help an individual whose story is known and personal, compared to a large, faceless group of people. It shows how emotional connection drives charitable behavior.
  • Illusory correlation — Illusory correlation is the tendency to perceive a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists. This cognitive bias can lead to stereotypes, superstitions, and flawed reasoning.
  • Imposter Syndrome — Imposter syndrome is the persistent feeling of self-doubt and inadequacy, despite evidence of success or competence. Those experiencing it often believe their achievements are due to luck rather than ability, fearing they’ll be exposed as frauds.
  • Inequality — Inequality refers to the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, or wealth within a society. It can manifest economically, socially, and politically, often resulting in disparities in power and well-being.
  • Inflation — Inflation is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services rises, eroding purchasing power over time. It reflects the declining value of currency, often driven by increased demand, supply shortages, or excessive money printing.
  • Ingroup bias — Ingroup bias is the tendency to favor one’s own group over outsiders, leading to preferential treatment, loyalty, and positive evaluations of group members. It can contribute to social divisions and prejudice against outgroups.
  • Integrative complexity — Integrative complexity is a psychological construct that measures the extent to which an individual or group recognizes multiple perspectives and can integrate these viewpoints into a coherent and nuanced understanding. It reflects the capacity for flexible thinking and problem-solving, often involving the ability to reconcile conflicting information and consider the broader context.
  • Interest rate — An interest rate is the percentage charged by lenders to borrowers for the use of money, or the percentage earned on savings or investments. It is a key tool in monetary policy, influencing borrowing, spending, and economic growth.
  • Internet of Things (IoT) — The Internet of Things refers to the network of physical objects embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies that enable them to connect and exchange data over the internet. IoT devices range from smart home gadgets to industrial machines, creating interconnected systems that enhance automation and data collection.
  • Interposition — Interposition is a controversial political theory suggesting that a state or local government can intervene or “interpose” between the federal government and its citizens to block or resist unconstitutional federal actions. It has historically been invoked in states’ rights debates.
  • Interventionism — Interventionism refers to a government’s active involvement in the affairs of other countries or in domestic markets. In international relations, it often involves military or economic actions; in economics, it refers to regulation or direct government involvement in markets.
  • Iron law of oligarchy — The Iron Law of Oligarchy, formulated by sociologist Robert Michels, posits that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they are at the start, will inevitably evolve into oligarchies. It argues that bureaucratic structures concentrate power into the hands of a few elites.
  • Jevons paradox — Jevons Paradox is the idea that increased efficiency in the use of a resource can lead to a greater overall consumption of that resource. For example, more efficient energy use can paradoxically increase total energy demand rather than decrease it.
  • Just-world hypothesis — The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, assuming the world is inherently fair. This bias can lead to victim-blaming, as people rationalize misfortune by attributing it to the victim’s actions or character.
  • Kakistocracy — Kakistocracy refers to a government run by the least qualified or most corrupt individuals. The term is a critique of leadership marked by incompetence and self-interest.
  • Karpman Drama Triangle — The Karpman Drama Triangle is a social model of human interaction in which individuals take on one of three roles: victim, persecutor, or rescuer. These roles create a cycle of conflict and manipulation that hinders healthy resolution of issues.
  • Ketman — Ketman refers to the act of outwardly conforming to an oppressive regime while secretly maintaining personal beliefs. The term originated in Eastern Europe under communist rule, describing how people concealed their dissent to avoid persecution.
  • Keynesian economics — Keynesian economics, popularized by John Maynard Keynes, advocates for active government intervention to manage economic cycles, especially during downturns. Examples include FDR‘s New Deal, LBJ’s Great Society, and Bidenenomics, which promoted public spending to stimulate demand and reduce unemployment.
  • Kleptocracy — A kleptocracy is a government where officials use their power to steal national resources or wealth for personal gain. Such regimes are characterized by rampant corruption and the embezzlement of state funds by those in power.
  • Kompromat — Kompromat is a Russian term for compromising material, often used in political blackmail. It refers to the practice of collecting damaging information on individuals to manipulate or control them for political or financial gain.
  • KPIs — Key Performance Indicators: metrics and measurements that provide feedback on how well a business is doing at meeting its objectives.
  • Kronos Effect — The Kronos Effect refers to the strategy used by dominant companies or institutions to suppress emerging competitors by absorbing them or eliminating threats early on. It’s named after the mythological Greek god Kronos, who devoured his children to prevent them from overthrowing him.
  • Laffer Curve — The Laffer Curve is a theory in economics that suggests there is an optimal tax rate that maximizes government revenue. It posits that excessively high tax rates can discourage economic activity, reducing the total tax collected, while lower rates can incentivize growth and increase revenues (see also: supply-side economics, trickle down economics).
  • Large Language Model (LLM) — A large language model (LLM) is a type of artificial intelligence that has been trained on vast amounts of text data to understand, generate, and manipulate natural language. These models, such as GPT, are used for a wide range of tasks like text generation, translation, summarization, and answering questions, leveraging deep learning techniques to predict and construct coherent human-like responses.
  • Last-place aversion — Last-place aversion describes the phenomenon where people near the bottom of an income distribution oppose wealth redistribution policies. They fear such policies might improve the conditions of those slightly below them, making them relatively worse off in the social hierarchy.
  • Law of large numbers — The law of large numbers is a statistical principle that states as the sample size increases, the average of the results becomes more representative of the expected value. In other words, larger data sets lead to more accurate predictions or outcomes.
  • Law of triviality — The law of triviality, also known as Parkinson’s Law of Triviality, asserts that organizations often spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting more significant and complex matters. It highlights how people tend to focus on simple, familiar topics in decision-making processes.
  • Least-barricaded gate — The least-barricaded gate refers to the idea that an adversary will attack the most vulnerable or least protected point in a system. It underscores the importance of fortifying weak points in security or defenses.
  • Lecturing birds how to fly — This phrase, coined by Nassim Taleb, criticizes the tendency of experts to provide advice or instruction to practitioners who are already naturally skilled in a given area. It reflects the arrogance of over-explaining to those with innate abilities or experience, and the overestimation of academic knowledge or rational means of acquiring skill in society as a whole.
  • Lemmings — Lemmings are often used metaphorically to describe individuals who follow the crowd blindly, without independent thought, sometimes leading to disastrous outcomes. The term originates from a misconception that lemmings engage in mass suicidal behavior.
  • Letter of the law (vs. spirit of the law) — The “letter of the law” refers to the literal and strict interpretation of legal text, while the “spirit of the law” refers to the intended purpose or broader principles behind the law. Conflict arises when rigid adherence to the letter undermines the law’s original intent.
  • Leverage — In finance, leverage refers to the use of borrowed money or other financial instruments to increase potential returns on investment. In broader terms, it can also mean using resources, influence, or advantages to achieve a desired outcome.
  • Lifeboat ethics — Lifeboat ethics is a metaphor for resource distribution and moral decision-making in situations of scarcity, suggesting that only a limited number of people can be saved or supported. It raises ethical questions about who gets to survive or benefit when resources are finite.
  • Loaded question — A loaded question is a question that contains a presupposition that traps the respondent into affirming something they may not agree with. It is a form of fallacy or rhetorical trick often used to manipulate the conversation or put someone on the defensive.
  • Local min — A local minimum refers to the lowest point within a specific range of a curve, where things may seem as though they have hit rock bottom before turning upward again, representing a temporary low rather than a permanent one.
  • Logical fallacies — Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning or argumentation that undermine the logical validity of a claim, often used to mislead or create faulty conclusions, even when the argument appears persuasive at first glance.
  • Lone Wolf mythology — The lone wolf mythology is the romanticized idea that individuals, often portrayed as self-sufficient and independent, achieve greatness or significance without any help or collaboration, ignoring the role of community, networks, and external factors in success.
  • Long Tail — The concept of the long tail, coined by Wired editor-in-chief Chris Anderson in 2004, refers to the concept that in digital markets, niche products or services, while individually selling in smaller quantities, collectively make up a large share of total market sales, especially when distribution and storage costs are low.
  • Longtermism — Longtermism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of making decisions today with a focus on improving the long-term future, often spanning decades, centuries, or even longer, prioritizing the well-being of future generations.
  • Loss aversion — Loss aversion is a cognitive bias where people tend to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains, meaning the pain of losing is psychologically more impactful than the pleasure of winning or gaining something.
  • Lost Cause — The Lost Cause is a post-Civil War narrative in the U.S. that glorified the Confederacy, portraying it as a noble, righteous fight for states’ rights and downplaying or justifying its connection to slavery, deeply influencing Southern identity and history.
  • Lost Einsteins — Lost Einsteins refers to the concept that many potential innovators and inventors, especially from underrepresented or disadvantaged backgrounds, never reach their full potential due to systemic barriers like inequality, lack of access to education, or opportunity.
  • Ludic fallacy — The ludic fallacy occurs when people mistakenly apply simplified, game-like rules to real-life situations, underestimating the complexity and unpredictability of real-world scenarios, leading to inaccurate assumptions or predictions.
  • Mafia State — Coined by Hungarian sociologist Balint Magyar, a mafia state is a government system where officials, including those in high-ranking positions, engage in criminal activities and form alliances with organized crime networks to consolidate power and wealth. In such states, corruption and illicit practices are normalized, undermining the rule of law and democratic institutions.
  • Magical Thinking — Magical thinking is the belief that one’s thoughts, words, or actions can directly influence the outcome of events in ways that defy natural laws or logic. It often stems from a desire to exert control over uncontrollable circumstances, leading to irrational or superstitious behavior.
  • Magic helper — In Erich Fromm‘s concept of the “magic helper,” individuals project their desire for salvation or guidance onto an external figure or force, believing that someone or something will rescue them from their struggles. This mental model reflects a dependency on external solutions rather than personal responsibility.
  • Magnification — Magnification is a cognitive distortion where individuals exaggerate the significance of negative events or personal failures, making them appear larger and more catastrophic than they really are. This type of thinking often fuels anxiety, stress, and a skewed perception of reality.
  • Malignant narcissism — Malignant narcissism is a severe personality disorder characterized by a combination of narcissistic traits, paranoia, antisocial behavior, and sadism. Individuals with this disorder exhibit an extreme need for admiration, a lack of empathy, and a tendency to exploit or harm others for personal gain.
  • Manichaean struggle — The Manichaean struggle refers to a worldview that divides reality into a battle between absolute good and absolute evil, often oversimplifying complex issues. This binary thinking fosters an “us versus them” mentality and can justify extreme actions against perceived enemies.
  • Man on horseback — A synonym for a demagogue, from French general Georges Ernest Boulanger. A military leader who presents himself as the savior of the country during a period of crisis and either assumes or threatens to assume dictatorial powers.
  • Map is not the territory — “The map is not the territory” is a concept indicating that representations of reality, such as maps, models, or descriptions, are not equivalent to reality itself. It underscores the idea that our interpretations and symbols cannot fully encapsulate the complexities and nuances of the actual world.
  • Margin of error — The margin of error represents the range within which the true value of a population parameter is expected to lie, based on a sample survey or poll. It provides a measure of uncertainty and is used to understand how precise the results are.
  • Marginal benefit — Marginal benefit refers to the additional gain or utility a person receives from consuming or producing one more unit of a good or service. It helps in decision-making by weighing the extra value gained against the cost of the next unit.
  • Marginal utility — Marginal utility in economics is the additional satisfaction or benefit derived from consuming one more unit of a good or service. It typically diminishes with each additional unit consumed, a principle known as diminishing marginal utility.
  • Market-based Management — Market-based management is a business philosophy developed by Charles Koch that applies free-market principles to organizational management, promoting decentralized decision-making and continuous innovation. It emphasizes value creation through competition and adaptability within the company.
  • Market share — Market share refers to the portion of a market controlled by a particular company or product, expressed as a percentage of total sales in that market. It is an indicator of competitiveness and the company’s relative position in its industry.
  • Markov chain — A Markov chain is a mathematical system that transitions between different states according to fixed probabilities, where the next state depends only on the current state and not on the sequence of past states. It is widely used in areas like statistics, economics, and machine learning for modeling probabilistic processes.
  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs — Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a psychological theory that categorizes human needs into five levels, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization. Individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before they can address higher-level needs, such as self-esteem and personal fulfillment.
  • Mean — A statistical measure of central tendency. The mean is the average of a set of numbers, calculated by summing all the values and dividing by the number of values. It provides a measure of central tendency that reflects the typical value in a data set.
  • Median — The median is the middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in order. It is a measure of central tendency that is less sensitive to outliers than the mean, making it useful in skewed distributions.
  • Median Voter Theorem — The median voter theorem suggests that in a majority-rule voting system, the preferences of the median voter will dominate, as candidates or parties tend to move toward the center to capture the most votes. This model explains why political outcomes often reflect moderate or centrist views.
  • Mens rea — Mens rea, Latin for “guilty mind,” refers to the intention or knowledge of wrongdoing that constitutes part of a crime. It is a key concept in criminal law, emphasizing that a person must have had a culpable state of mind at the time of the crime to be held legally responsible.
  • Mercantilism — Mercantilism is an economic theory that dominated Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries, promoting governmental regulation of a nation’s economy to increase state power, particularly through a favorable balance of trade. It emphasized the accumulation of wealth, primarily gold and silver, and the idea that global wealth was finite.
  • Meritocracy — Meritocracy is a system in which power and opportunities are distributed based on individual merit, typically measured by skills, talent, and effort rather than wealth or social status. While it promises fairness, critics argue that it can perpetuate inequality by ignoring systemic barriers that disadvantage certain groups.
  • Metabolic cost of cognition — Renowned psychologist and neuroscientist Lisa Feldman Barrett’s finding that the brain is a highly energy-intensive organ, consuming up to 20% of the body’s energy at rest, which makes complex thinking and problem-solving metabolically expensive. Her work highlights that managing energy costs is crucial for brain function, which is why the brain often resorts to predictive shortcuts.
  • Middle ground — The middle ground refers to a position or solution that seeks to reconcile two opposing viewpoints, often perceived as a balanced or moderate approach. However, it can sometimes lead to compromise solutions that don’t fully satisfy either side, potentially creating ambiguity or a false sense of resolution.
  • Middle Path — Originating from Buddhism, the Middle Path advocates for a life of moderation, avoiding extremes of indulgence and self-denial. It emphasizes balance and wisdom in decision-making, promoting a way of living that fosters long-term well-being and harmony.
  • Milgram Experiments — The Milgram Experiments, conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram, tested people’s willingness to obey authority figures, even when instructed to perform actions that conflicted with their personal conscience. The results showed a disturbing tendency for individuals to comply with authority, even at the expense of harming others.
  • Millenarianism — Millenarianism is the belief in a coming major transformation of society, often linked to apocalyptic or religious prophecy, where an era of peace or divine rule will follow. Historically, it has driven social and religious movements that seek to hasten the end times or usher in a golden age.
  • Millennialism — Closely related to millenarianism, millennialism is specifically the belief in a future thousand-year reign of Christ or another religious figure as described in Christian eschatology. It has influenced various religious and political movements, especially those that predict or work toward dramatic societal change.
  • Mind metaphors — Mind metaphors are conceptual tools we use to understand the mind by comparing it to more familiar systems, such as a computer, a theater, or a machine. These metaphors shape how we think about mental processes like memory, perception, and consciousness, although they can sometimes oversimplify or mislead.
  • Mind reading — In psychology, mind reading refers to the cognitive ability to infer the thoughts, feelings, or intentions of others, also known as Theory of Mind. While it’s an essential skill for social interaction, it can lead to misunderstandings or cognitive distortions when people assume they know what others are thinking without sufficient evidence.
  • Minimizing — Minimizing is a cognitive distortion where an individual downplays or dismisses the significance of an event, emotion, or experience, often as a defense mechanism. This can prevent people from fully acknowledging their feelings or the gravity of a situation, leading to unresolved issues.
  • Mirror imaging — In political psychology and international relations, mirror imaging refers to the tendency to project one’s own values, beliefs, or intentions onto others, assuming they think and act similarly. This can lead to misjudgments, especially in conflict or negotiation scenarios, where understanding differences is critical.
  • Mobbing Syndrome — Mobbing Syndrome refers to the phenomenon of workplace bullying where an individual is systematically harassed, humiliated, or isolated by colleagues or superiors, leading to severe psychological harm. Heinz Leymann identified it in 1990 as a “deadly industrial disease” that thrives in hierarchical, competitive work environments and can devastate victims both personally and professionally.
  • Mole — A mole is a fundamental unit in chemistry that quantifies the amount of substance, defined as exactly 6.022 x 10Β²Β³ atoms, molecules, or other elementary entities, known as Avogadro’s number. This concept helps chemists easily relate macroscopic quantities to the number of particles at the atomic scale, making it essential for measuring reactions and molecular compositions.
  • Money manager capitalism — Hyman Minsky’s theory of Money Manager Capitalism describes the evolution of the financial system where institutional investors like mutual funds, pension funds, and hedge funds dominate, driving a shift towards market-based finance with increased leverage and complex financial instruments. This stage, emerging post-1980s, is characterized by a focus on short-term returns, heightened financial innovation, and the transfer of risks off traditional bank balance sheets, resulting in greater financial fragility and susceptibility to crises, as exemplified by the 2008 financial meltdown.
  • Monopoly — A monopoly exists when a single company or entity dominates a particular market, controlling the supply of a product or service and limiting competition. This often leads to higher prices and reduced innovation, as the monopolist has significant power over consumers and market dynamics.
  • Monopsony — A monopsony occurs when a single buyer dominates the market, giving them disproportionate control over suppliers or labor. This market structure often enables the buyer to push down prices or wages, as there are few alternative buyers available for sellers or workers to negotiate with.
  • Moore’s Law — Moore’s Law, coined by Gordon Moore in 1965, states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years, resulting in a corresponding increase in computing power and efficiency. This observation has driven exponential growth in technology, influencing advancements in electronics, computing, and various digital industries.
  • Moral hazard — Moral hazard occurs when one party takes on excessive risk because they do not bear the full consequences of that risk, often due to external protections like insurance or government bailouts. This can lead to irresponsible behavior, as the individual or organization feels shielded from the potential fallout.
  • Moral panic — A moral panic arises when a segment of society becomes irrationally concerned about a perceived threat to its values or safety, often amplified by media coverage. These panics typically result in exaggerated public reactions and policies aimed at controlling or suppressing the supposed danger.
  • Motivated reasoning — Motivated reasoning is the cognitive process in which individuals selectively gather, interpret, and evaluate information in a biased way to support their pre-existing beliefs or desires. This phenomenon often leads to poor decision-making, as people prioritize what they want to believe over objective evidence.
  • Naive cynicism — Naive cynicism is the tendency to assume that other people’s views are shaped by their self-interest or biases, while considering one’s own views to be objective and rational. This can lead to misunderstandings and a lack of empathy in social and political interactions.
  • Naive realism — Naive realism is the belief that one perceives the world accurately and that people who disagree are either uninformed, irrational, or biased. It can create a barrier to understanding differing perspectives and lead to conflicts in communication and relationships.
  • Narcissism — Narcissism is characterized by excessive self-focus, an inflated sense of importance, and a deep need for admiration, often at the expense of empathy for others. Narcissists tend to prioritize their own needs and desires, sometimes engaging in manipulative or self-serving behavior to maintain their self-image.
  • Narcissism of small differences — Sigmund Freud’s concept of the narcissism of small differences describes the phenomenon where individuals or groups who are closely related, either culturally or ideologically, engage in conflict or hostility over minor distinctions. This theory suggests that minor differences are exaggerated to affirm identity and superiority over others.
  • Nash Equilibrium — Nash Equilibrium, a key concept in game theory, occurs when all players in a strategic game are choosing the best possible strategy given the strategies of others, and no player has an incentive to deviate from their choice. It reflects a stable state where everyone’s decisions are mutually consistent, but not necessarily optimal for the group as a whole.
  • Nasty, brutish, and short — This phrase comes from philosopher Thomas Hobbes’ description of life in a state of nature, where he argued that without government or social structure, human life would be chaotic, violent, and brief. It underscores his belief in the necessity of a strong central authority to maintain order and prevent societal collapse.
  • Natural law — Natural law refers to the idea that certain rights and moral principles are inherent to human nature and can be discovered through reason, independent of human-made laws. Rooted in philosophy and theology, it suggests that these universal principles govern human conduct and serve as a basis for legal systems.
  • Near enemy — In Buddhism, the concept of the near enemy describes a pitfall or metaphorical adversary that is not as obvious as the more obvious, “far” enemy. The Near Enemy appears more innocuous and presents itself as a positive as opposed to a negative.
  • Negative externalities — Negative externalities occur when a person or business’s actions impose unintended costs on others, such as pollution or noise, without those responsible bearing the full burden of those costs. They represent a market failure where the social cost exceeds the private cost, often necessitating government intervention to correct the imbalance.
  • Negativity bias — Negativity bias is the psychological tendency for people to focus more on negative experiences or information than positive ones, giving greater weight to threats or unpleasant events. This bias influences decision-making, emotional responses, and memory, often leading to a skewed perception of reality.
  • Neurosis — Neurosis refers to a range of mental health issues characterized by anxiety, depression, or obsessive behavior, where the individual remains in touch with reality but struggles with internal conflict or emotional distress. Unlike psychosis, neurotic individuals do not lose their grasp on the external world but may experience disproportionate fear or worry.
  • Newspeak — Newspeak, a term coined by George Orwell in his novel 1984, is a fictional language designed to diminish the range of thought by reducing vocabulary and manipulating meaning. It serves as a tool for political control, restricting the ability to express dissent and promoting ideological conformity.
  • Night Watchman State — The Night Watchman State, also known as the minimal state, advocates for a government with limited responsibilities, focusing on protecting citizens from violence, theft, and fraud, and minimizing intervention in the economy and society. Critics argue that such minimalism fails to support vulnerable populations and adequately regulate markets, protect the environment, or ensure social justice, emphasizing the need for a more complex government to address modern societal challenges.
  • Nominal realism — Nominal realism is the cognitive tendency, especially in children, to believe that names or labels of objects are inherently linked to their physical properties. It reflects an early stage of cognitive development where individuals may struggle to understand that words are arbitrary symbols.
  • Nonlinearity — Nonlinearity describes a relationship between variables where the effect of one variable on another is not proportional or predictable. In complex systems, small changes can lead to disproportionately large effects, making outcomes difficult to forecast with traditional linear models.
  • Non-zero sum game — A non-zero sum game is a situation in which all participants can gain or lose together, meaning that one party’s gain doesn’t necessarily come at another’s loss. In contrast to zero-sum games, cooperation and mutually beneficial outcomes are possible, creating opportunities for win-win scenarios.
  • Normal distribution — The normal distribution, often called the “bell curve,” is a probability distribution that is symmetrical around the mean, where most observations cluster around the center and taper off symmetrically at the extremes. It’s a common model in statistics, representing many natural and social phenomena, such as human heights or test scores.
  • No True Scotsman fallacy — The No True Scotsman fallacy occurs when someone arbitrarily redefines a category to exclude counterexamples that disprove their claim. It’s a form of circular reasoning where, rather than addressing the exception, the speaker shifts the definition to avoid being wrong.
  • Observational selection bias — Observational selection bias happens when certain data or observations are systematically overlooked or given disproportionate weight, leading to skewed conclusions. This bias often occurs when individuals focus on evidence that supports their preconceived notions while ignoring contradictory information.
  • Occam’s Razor — Occam’s Razor is a problem-solving principle that suggests the simplest explanation, requiring the fewest assumptions, is often the correct one. It doesn’t guarantee truth but is a useful heuristic in scientific and logical reasoning to prioritize more straightforward theories.
  • Ochlocracy — Ochlocracy, or mob rule, refers to a form of governance where control is exercised by a disorderly crowd or mass of people, bypassing legitimate authority and institutions. It often leads to chaotic decision-making and undermines the rule of law in favor of impulsive and emotional responses.
  • OKRs — Objectives and Key Results, or OKRs, are a business framework that defines specific objectives an organization or team aims to achieve, along with measurable key results to track progress. Widely used in goal-setting, they help align individual, team, and organizational efforts toward a shared vision of success.
  • Oligarchy — Oligarchy is a political system where power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group, often based on wealth, family ties, or military control. This form of governance tends to prioritize the interests of the few over the broader population, leading to inequality and restricted political influence.
  • Omission bias — Omission bias is the tendency to judge harmful actions as worse than equally harmful inactions, leading people to feel more comfortable with harm caused by doing nothing than by direct intervention. This psychological bias can distort decision-making, particularly in situations involving ethical or moral choices.
  • Ontology recapitulates phylogeny — This outdated biological theory, proposed by Ernst Haeckel, suggested that the development of an individual organism (ontology) mirrors the evolutionary development of its species (phylogeny). While it has been largely discredited, the concept highlights the historical attempt to link embryological development with evolutionary history.
  • Operant conditioning — A psychological learning model in which behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment, encouraging desired actions and discouraging unwanted ones. By repeatedly pairing a stimulus with a positive or negative consequence, operant conditioning shapes behavior and responses over time.
  • Opportunity cost — The loss of potential gain when one choice is selected over another, representing the benefits of the foregone alternative. In decision-making, understanding opportunity cost helps weigh the true impact of a choice.
  • Optimism bias — A cognitive bias causing people to overestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes while underestimating potential risks. This can lead to overconfidence and risk-taking without adequate preparation.
  • Options — A financial derivative giving the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an asset at a predetermined price before or on a specific date. Options offer flexibility for investors to hedge against risk, speculate on asset prices, or generate income through premium collection.
  • Orders of magnitude — A comparative scale that highlights exponential differences, often used to understand the vast differences in size, scale, or impact. Thinking in orders of magnitude helps contextualize large quantities and prioritize critical areas.
  • Orienting response — A natural, instinctive reaction in which we pay special attention to novel or significant stimuli that enter our field of vision, often critical for survival. This mental model explains why certain visuals, sounds, or movements demand our immediate focus.
  • Originalism — A judicial philosophy that purports to interpret legal texts, especially the Constitution, according to the intent and understanding of its original authors. Originalism contrasts with more flexible interpretations as well as changes to the corpus of law in the United States over time.
  • Outgroup bias — The tendency to view those outside one’s social group more negatively than those within it, leading to stereotyping or prejudice. Recognizing outgroup bias helps challenge assumptions and promote inclusivity.
  • Outlier — A data point or observation that deviates significantly from other values, often revealing exceptions or unique cases. Outliers can skew analyses and may either reveal errors or highlight meaningful insights.
  • Overgeneralizing — Drawing broad conclusions from a limited set of observations, often leading to stereotypes or inaccurate assumptions. Overgeneralizing can cloud judgment by overlooking the complexity and variation within groups or situations.
  • Oversight — The process of supervising activities or policies to ensure they meet certain standards and avoid errors. Effective oversight provides accountability and ensures quality control in both projects and policies.
  • Overton Window — The Overton Window refers to the range of policies or ideas that are considered politically acceptable or mainstream at a given time. It shifts over time as public opinion and political discourse evolve, influencing what policymakers and the public deem feasible or acceptable.
  • Paradox — A statement or situation that appears self-contradictory or logically inconsistent, yet may reveal an underlying truth upon deeper examination. Paradoxes challenge assumptions and encourage critical thinking, highlighting complexities and the limits of conventional logic.
  • Paralipsis — Paralipsis is a rhetorical device where a speaker or writer emphasizes something by pretending to pass over it, thus drawing attention to it indirectly. It often involves stating that a topic will not be mentioned while actually highlighting its importance.
  • Paranoia — A mental state or condition characterized by intense and irrational mistrust, suspicion, or fear of others. In extreme cases, paranoia may lead to a belief in conspiracies against oneself or a conviction that others have hostile intentions.
  • Paranoid Style — The paranoid style in American politics refers to a way of thinking and discourse characterized by exaggerated fear, suspicion, and conspiracy theories, often perceiving vast, insidious, and unseen forces working against society. This style, as described by historian Richard Hofstadter, frequently appears during times of social stress and is marked by a sense of urgency and moral righteousness.
  • Pareto Principle — Also known as the 80/20 rule, the Pareto Principle suggests that 80% of effects often come from 20% of causes. This principle highlights how a few critical inputs can drive the majority of outcomes, helping prioritize efforts in problem-solving and productivity.
  • Parkinson’s Law of Triviality — Sometimes called β€œbikeshedding,” this law states that people often spend disproportionate time discussing minor details of a complex issue, rather than focusing on more impactful areas. It illustrates a cognitive bias where trivial issues feel safer and easier to engage with than larger, more complex problems.
  • Parrondo’s Paradox — A counterintuitive phenomenon where two losing strategies can be combined to produce a winning outcome. In probability and game theory, Parrondo’s Paradox shows how alternating or mixing strategies can sometimes yield success, even when each strategy alone leads to failure.
  • Path dependent — Describes processes or decisions that are heavily influenced by previous steps or events, making some outcomes more likely than others based on historical context. Path dependence shows how initial conditions or choices can constrain future possibilities, locking in certain trajectories over time.
  • Pathocracy — A term describing a government or ruling system where leaders exhibit psychopathic or sociopathic traits, prioritizing self-interest, control, and manipulation over public welfare. Pathocracy emphasizes the dangers of unempathetic, power-driven leadership on societal well-being and democratic structures.
  • Patriarchy — The divine right of kings; authority via claimed received wisdom — and the accident of biological sex
  • Pearls before swine
  • Peer pressure
  • Perfect is the enemy of good
  • Personality disorders —
  • Personal incredulity
  • Peter Principle
  • Philosopher’s Stone
  • Plan continuation bias — aka the “get-there-itis” phenomenon in airplane pilot terminology
  • Planning fallacy
  • Plate tectonics
  • Platonic forms
  • Plato’s Cave
  • Pluralistic ignorance
  • Plutocracy
  • Polyanna Principle
  • Polygenesis — pseudoscientific human origin story used to justify slavery
  • Polyvagal theory — Polyvagal Theory, developed by Dr. Stephen Porges, explains how the autonomic nervous system influences our emotional regulation, social connection, and stress responses, highlighting the role of the vagus nerve in responding to safety, danger, and life-threatening situations.
  • Populism — a type of political movement
  • Positive expectation bias
  • Post-purchase rationalization
  • Potemkin Village Effect
  • Power
  • Predestination
  • “Preening self” — Tim Wu’s concept of the universal urge to “capture the attention of others with the spectacle of one’s self”
  • Presentation of Self — Sociologist Erving Goffman’s most famous work, which introduced the concept of “dramaturgy” to sociology. He used the metaphor of theater to describe how individuals present themselves in everyday life, suggesting that people are like actors on a stage, performing roles for an audience.
  • Primogeniture — laws in the early US defining that by default, assets will pass to the first-born male
  • Prisoner’s Dilemma
  • Private mental property — Pol Pot’s concept for the most intimate inner thoughts and feelings of his people, that he was dedicated to removing completely from them.
  • Probability
  • Procrustean bed
  • Projection
  • Prolefeed
  • Proletariat
  • Propaganda
  • Proportionality
  • Prospect theory
  • Proteanism
  • Provincialism
  • Proximate cause
  • Proxy war
  • Psychopath
  • Psychosis
  • PTSD — Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
  • Public choice theory
  • Pyrrhic victory — a hollow victory which destroys the victor as much as it does the vanquished; a victory that comes at extremely high cost
  • Quantum theory
  • Quid pro quo — Latin phrase: something in exchange for something else
  • Range
  • Rational ignorance
  • Reality testing
  • Received wisdom — divine revelation, claimed authority from the gods, and other mechanisms of establishing power from an unprovable (and undisprovable) premise falling outside of logic and rational deliberation
  • Reciprocity
  • Recursion
  • Red-baiting
  • Redundancy
  • Relativity
  • Remarketization — Remarketization refers to the process of reinstating or expanding market mechanisms and principles within an economy or sector that had previously been regulated or managed by the state or other non-market entities. This often involves privatization, deregulation, and the promotion of competition to enhance efficiency and innovation. The policy became prominent during the Reagan/Thatcher years.
  • Representativeness
  • Repression
  • Resemblance bias
  • Resilience
  • Risk
  • Risk aversion
  • ROI — Return on Investment, i.e. how much you earn from an investment or business expenditure vs. what you put in or spent
  • Rule of Law
  • Sadism — the tendency to derive pleasure — often of a sexual nature — from inflicting pain or suffering on other people
  • Sado-masochistic strivings — Erich Fromm concept
  • Sadopopulism
  • Sampling
  • Samsara — a Sanskrit word meaning “world,” that also references the Buddhist concept of rebirth and the endless cyclicality of all life and matter in the universe
  • Satisficing — Satisficing is a decision-making strategy that aims for a satisfactory or adequate result rather than the optimal solution, often due to time constraints or limited information. This approach involves evaluating alternatives until an acceptable threshold is met, rather than exhaustively searching for the best possible outcome.
  • Sayre’s Law — Sayre’s Law states that “In any dispute, the intensity of feeling is inversely proportional to the value of the issues at stake.” This means that the smaller or more trivial the matter, the more passionate and bitter the arguments tend to be.
  • Scapegoat
  • Second-order thinking
  • Secularism
  • Selective exposure — Selective exposure is the tendency of individuals to prefer information that supports their preexisting views while avoiding contradictory information. This behavior reinforces existing beliefs and biases, often leading to polarized opinions and a lack of balanced understanding.
  • Selectorate theory
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy
  • Self-serving bias
  • Senicide
  • Shifting baseline syndrome
  • Sic semper tyrannis — thus always to tyrants (John Wilkes Booth; Timothy McVeigh)
  • Signal path
  • Simpson’s Paradox
  • Singularity
  • Skin in the game
  • Slippery slope
  • Smear campaign
  • Snackwell effect
  • Social contract
  • social-desirability bias — A type of response bias in which survey respondents tend to answer questions in ways that will viewed more favorably by others
  • Social dominance
  • Socialism
  • Sociopath
  • Socratic method
  • Spatial Segregation Model — Thomas Schelling (1969)
  • Special pleading
  • Special relativity
  • Spectra
  • Spiral of silence
  • Spirit of the law (vs. letter of the law)
  • SPoF (Single Point of Failure)
  • Standard deviation
  • Standard Model of particle physics
  • State of the World — full description of all relevant information
  • Status quo
  • Stereotypes
  • Stonewalling
  • Strawman
  • Strongman
  • Streisand Effect
  • String Theory
  • Sundown towns
  • Sunk cost
  • Superorganism
  • Supremacy
  • Symbiosis — psychological concept from Erich Fromm on what fascist followers get out of their relationship with the Strongman
  • Sycophant — one who flatters the ruler, no matter how awful their ideas
  • Tangent
  • Tang ping — Tang Ping (or “lying flat”) is a Chinese social movement advocating a minimalist lifestyle and rejection of societal pressures for overwork and consumerism, in response to burnout and unsustainable economic demands.
  • Tariffs
  • Teleological fallacy
  • Terminal velocity model
  • Texas sharpshooter
  • Third Story
  • Tightly coupled — when a system is unforgiving, or has little buffer between its components
  • Tilting at windmills
  • Time to completion
  • Tipping point
  • Toxic masculinity
  • Toxic positivity
  • Tragedy of the commons
  • Trauma bonding
  • Treadmill effect
  • Triangulation
  • Trickle-down economics
  • Trolley problem
  • Tu quoque
  • Turtles all the way down
  • Tyranny
  • Tyranny of choice
  • Tyranny of small decisions
  • UBI — Universal Basic Income
  • Umgebung — in contrast to the provincial, proprietary umwelt, the umgebung is the actual world, that exists beyond our mere perception of the world
  • Umwelt — the small subset of the world we can detect or perceive, in contrast with umgebung which is the “bigger” reality
  • Uncertainty
  • Uncertainty avoidance
  • Vatnik
  • Veil of Ignorance — John Rawls
  • Venn diagram
  • Vertical axis of morality
  • Violent othering — When members of racial, ethnic, religious, or other types of groups are targeted for political violence for spurious reasons
  • Wadler’s Law
  • Wave function
  • Wave-particle duality
  • Whac-a-mole — solving one problem only to have a new one pop up elsewhere, a reference to a Japanese video game from the 1970s that became popular in America as well
  • Whataboutism
  • White Jesus
  • White supremacy
  • Wisdom of the crowds
  • Wolves and sheep
  • Worst case scenario
  • Zero-risk bias
  • Zero sum game
Read more

Project 2025 mind map of entities

Project 2025, led by former Trump official Paul Dans and key conservative figures within The Heritage Foundation, sets forth an ambitious conservative and Christian nationalist vision aimed at fundamentally transforming the role of the federal government. Leonard Leo, a prominent conservative known for his influence on the U.S. Supreme Court‘s composition, is among the project’s leading fundraisers.

The initiative seeks to undo over a century of progressive reforms, tracing back to the establishment of a federal administrative framework by Woodrow Wilson, through the New Deal by Roosevelt, to Johnson’s Great Society. It proposes a significant reduction in the federal workforce, which stands at about 2.25 million people.

Project 2025 plans

Essential measures include reducing funding for, or even abolishing, key agencies such as the Department of Justice, the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, and the Departments of Education and Commerce. Additionally, Project 2025 intends to bring semi-independent agencies like the Federal Communications Commission under closer presidential control.

At its heart, Project 2025 aims to secure a durable conservative dominance within the federal government, aligning it closely with the principles of the MAGA movement and ensuring it operates under the direct oversight of the White House. The project is inspired by the “unitary executive theory” of the Constitution, which argues for sweeping presidential authority over the federal administrative apparatus — in direct contradiction with the delicate system of checks and balances architected by the Founders.

It is also inspired by religious fervor (and the cynical exploitation thereof) — and Project 2025 has brought together a pantheon of Christian nationalist organizations and groups to draft policy that could be implemented with alacrity, select potential appointees for the administration, build networks with GOP at the state and local levels — and with right wing groups and networks around the world.

Project 2025 goals

To realize their extremist, authoritarian goal, Dans is actively recruiting what he terms “conservative warriors” from legal and government networks, including bar associations and offices of state attorneys general. The aim is to embed these individuals in key legal roles throughout the government, thereby embedding the conservative vision deeply within the federal bureaucracy to shape policy and governance for the foreseeable future.

Continue reading What is Project 2025: The GOP’s plan for taking power
Read more

Christian nationalism illustration

The term Christian nationalists brings together a number of radical religious sects seeking to overthrow the democratic republic of the United States and installing a strict theocracy, from dominionists to orthodox Catholics to Evangelicals and many more. Christian nationalist organizations work to increase the influence of religion on politics, under the invented mythology that the largely Deist founders meant to establish a Christian state.

They tend to believe in Strict Father Morality, and Christian nationalist leaders desire to establish some sort of Christian fascist theocratic state in America. Nevermind that religious freedom and the ability to worship as one pleases was precisely one of the major founding ideals of the United States, as we know from the many, many outside writings of the founders at that time — these folks consider that context “irrelevant” to the literal text of the founding documents.

Getting “separation of state” backwards

Prominent Christian nationalist David Barton re-interprets the famous 1802 Thomas Jefferson letter to the Danbury Baptists to allege support for a “one-way wall” between church and state. Barton contends that Jefferson’s metaphor of a “wall of separation” was intended to protect religious institutions from government interference rather than ensuring the government’s secular nature. By advocating for this one-directional barrier, Barton seeks to justify the integration of religious principles into public policy and government actions — improbably, given the First Amendment to the Constitution.

Barton and his fellow Christian nationalists are either intentionally or unfathomably not taking the logical next step in the chain of power and authority: if the government is informed, infused, or even consumed by religious dogma and doctrine, then is that government not by definition infringing on the rights of any citizens that happens not to believe in that code or creed?

The answer, as we well know from the colonization of America itself, is YES. We left the Church of England in large part to worship of our own accord — and to make money, of course. Madison, Jefferson, Franklin, Adams, and Washington were especially concerned about religious liberty and the neutrality of government in religious matters.

Thus, in large part, the ideas of the Christian nationalists are misinterpretations at best, and willful invention at worst. In some it is clearly a naked power grab and not much more — think of Trump holding an upside-down Bible in Lafayette Square. In general, Christian nationalism doesn’t actually seem very Christian at all.

Whether they are True Believers or Opportunistic Cynics, the Christian nationalist organizations and right wing groups on this list — as well as a number of prominent individuals within these organizations — represent a threat to democracy as we know it — especially with Project 2025 so close to coming to fruition in a second Trump administration. Best we get a look at who they are.

Christian nationalists abstract

Christian nationalism

For more on Christian nationalism, please see the following topics:

Project 2025

What is Project 2025: The GOP’s plan for taking power
Does Trump support Project 2025?

Famous Christian nationalists list

Here are some of the people and organizations involved in — or foundational to — the modern day movement to establish a Christian theocratic government in America (this is a work in progress!):

  • 700 Club — Airing since 1966, the 700 Club is one of the longest-running Christian TV programs in the U.S. The show is produced by the Christian Broadcasting Network, founded by evangelist and one-time presidential candidate (1988) Pat Robertson.
  • Acton Institute — The Acton Institute is a think tank that promotes the integration of free-market economics with conservative Christian theology, advocating for limited government and individual liberty as expressions of religious principles. Critics argue that its focus on deregulation and laissez-faire capitalism often aligns with policies that favor corporate interests over social justice and economic equality, pushing a religiously-infused political agenda.
  • Howard Ahmanson Jr. — American businessman, philanthropist, and Christian conservative activist who has donated millions of dollars to right-wing organizations and the GOP. Ahmanson is the son of the late financier and philanthropist Howard F. Ahmanson Sr., and a supporter of the Intelligent Design movement.
  • Awake 88 — A 2008 initiative sponsored by the Family Research Council (FRC) in which J.C. Church visited 2500 churches in all of Ohio’s 88 counties in an effort to turn the state red in the 2008 elections.
  • Alexander Acosta — Trump‘s Secretary of Labor from April 2017 to July 2019 who resigned when new details of his unlawful “sweetheart” plea deal with Jeffrey Epstein came to light. He was known to attend the weekly White House Bible study gatherings led by Dominionist and Evangelical proselytizer Ralph Drollinger.
  • Alex Azar — Trump’s Secretary of Health and Human Services from January 2018 to January 2021, who was also known to attend the weekly White House Bible study gatherings led by Dominionist Ralph Drollinger.
  • Alliance Defending Freedom (ADF) — The ADF is a nonprofit founded in 1994 by James Dobson, Bill Bright, and other Christian leaders to provide legal representation and support to people and organizations facing legal challenges based on their religious beliefs. The ADF was involved in the high-profile Masterpiece Cakeshop case, defending the baker who refused to make a gay wedding cake.
gay wedding cake, by Midjourney
  • Alliance for Religious Liberty — The Alliance for Religious Liberty is a coalition of conservative legal organizations and advocacy groups dedicated to protecting religious freedoms and promoting Christian values in public policy. Critics argue that its efforts often align with Christian nationalist agendas, seeking to integrate specific religious doctrines into legislation and influence governance to reflect conservative Christian beliefs.
  • American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ) — The American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ) is a conservative legal advocacy group founded by televangelist Pat Robertson, closely aligned with Christian nationalist ideologies. The organization aggressively promotes a religiously conservative agenda, frequently engaging in litigation and public policy advocacy to impose its version of Christian values on American law, often targeting issues like abortion rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and the separation of church and state.
  • American College of Pediatricians — ACPeds is a small, socially conservative group of pediatricians founded in 2002 that has been criticized for its support of the discredited “conversion therapy” practice for LGBTQ+ youth and other views that run counter to the group’s stated purpose of promoting healthy and respectful development of children. The group is not recognized by the American Board of Medical Specialties or the American Academy of Pediatrics.
  • American Enterprise Institute (AEI) — A conservative think tank based in the United States that conducts research and advocacy on a range of public policy issues. Founded in 1938, the AEI is known for its promotion of conservative social values.
  • American Family Association (AFA) — A non-profit conservative Christian organization based in the United States, founded in 1977. The group has been designated as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center, which cites the organization’s history of spreading false and harmful information about LGBTQ+ individuals and promoting intolerance and bigotry.
  • American Family Radio Network (AFR) — A Christian radio network in the U.S.
  • American Heritage Girls (AHG) — The American Heritage Girls (AHG) is a faith-based scouting organization for girls based in the United States. The organization was founded in 1995 and describes itself as “a Christ-centered character and leadership development program for girls 5 to 18 years of age.” It requires all members to agree to a statement of faith that affirms a belief in God and a commitment to Christian values.
  • American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) — Along with CNP, one of two primary right-wing groups with deep funding ties over the past half century to Republican lawmakers and donors & covertly driving “local” and state legislative agenda centrally from a nationally-coordinated source that shrinks from public view and carefully shields its operations from scrutiny.
  • Americans of Faith — A massive church-based get-out-the-vote campaign in 2004 led by conservative Christian activist and Salem Radio founder Edward Atsinger III.
  • America’s Renewal Project — America’s Renewal Project is a conservative Christian initiative that mobilizes pastors and church leaders to engage in political activism and promote biblical values within American society and government. Critics argue that the project aligns with Christian nationalist goals, aiming to influence public policy and elections to reflect conservative Christian doctrines and principles​.
  • America Wake Up — “America Wake Up” was a religious movement that emerged in the United States during the early 21st century, primarily gaining momentum in the late 2010s and early 2020s. The group, which combined elements of evangelical Christianity with apocalyptic and nationalist themes, aimed to rally Americans to restore traditional religious values and preserve the nation’s spiritual and cultural heritage. Its followers believed that America was in a state of moral decline and that God’s favor could only be reclaimed through a mass spiritual awakening. Although “America Wake Up” was never a centralized organization, its adherents often united through social media, small-group meetings, and public rallies. Critics accused the group of promoting intolerance and divisiveness, and its influence waned as mainstream religious and political figures distanced themselves from its more extreme rhetoric.
  • Robert Arnakis — Robert Arnakis was a prominent conservative political operative and trainer in the United States during the early 21st century. As the Director of Domestic and International Programs at the Leadership Institute, he played a crucial role in mentoring and training conservative activists, politicians, and future leaders. Although he maintained a relatively low public profile, Arnakis significantly impacted the conservative movement by shaping the careers of numerous political figures and promoting conservative values through education and training initiatives.
  • Arlington Group — The Arlington Group was a coalition of influential conservative Christian leaders and organizations in the United States, formed in 2002 to facilitate cooperation and strategic coordination among various religious and political factions. By focusing on shared goals such as opposition to same-sex marriage and the promotion of traditional family values, the group aimed to advance a socially conservative agenda on a national level. While the Arlington Group’s influence diminished over time, its efforts significantly impacted American politics and contributed to the ongoing debate surrounding social issues in the country.
  • Larry Arnn — Larry Arnn, the long-serving president of Hillsdale College, has been influential in guiding the institution towards a more conservative and Christian nationalist direction. Under his leadership, Hillsdale has emphasized a curriculum rooted in the traditional values of Western civilization and has increasingly associated with conservative religious and political figures. Arnn’s tenure has undeniably made Hillsdale a central hub for promoting and advancing conservative ideology and Christian nationalist delusions in American education and public discourse.
  • Edward Atsinger III — Edward Atsinger III is an American businessman and broadcasting executive, who co-founded and served as the CEO of Salem Media Group, one of the leading conservative and Christian media companies in the United States. Established in 1986, Salem Media Group operates a vast network of radio stations, digital media platforms, and publishing houses, targeting conservative and faith-based audiences. Under Atsinger’s leadership, the company has played a pivotal role in shaping American conservative and Christian media landscapes, with its platforms serving as influential channels for promoting conservative and religious viewpoints.
conservative talk shows and right-wing radio
  • Marcus Bachmann — Marcus Bachmann is an American clinical therapist and entrepreneur who gained national attention due to his marriage to former Republican Congresswoman and presidential candidate Michele Bachmann. He holds a PhD in clinical psychology and is the founder of Bachmann & Associates, a Christian counseling center in Minnesota that offers therapy services for a wide range of mental health issues. Bachmann has faced criticism for his views on conversion therapy for LGBTQ individuals, which he allegedly practiced at his clinic, although he has denied promoting this controversial treatment.
  • Michele Bachmann — Michele Bachmann is an American politician, lawyer, and former Republican Congresswoman who represented Minnesota’s 6th district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2007 to 2015. A prominent figure in the Tea Party movement, Bachmann was known for her conservative stances on issues such as limited government, pro-life advocacy, and opposition to same-sex marriage. In 2012, she sought the Republican nomination for the presidency but eventually withdrew from the race, returning to the private sector after completing her congressional tenure.
  • Jim Bakker — Jim Bakker is an American televangelist, entrepreneur, and former minister who became a prominent figure in the 1970s and 1980s as the host of the successful Christian television program “The PTL Club,” alongside his then-wife, Tammy Faye Bakker. Bakker’s ministry took a downturn in the late 1980s when he was embroiled in a series of scandals involving financial fraud and extramarital affairs, ultimately resulting in his conviction and imprisonment. After his release in 1994, Bakker returned to televangelism and has continued his ministry, albeit on a smaller scale, focusing on end-time prophecy and the sale of survival products.
Jim Bakker, by Midjourney
  • Steve Bannon — Steve Bannon is an American political strategist, filmmaker, and media executive who gained national prominence as the executive chairman of Breitbart News and later as the chief strategist for President Donald Trump‘s 2016 campaign and his early White House administration. Through his work at Breitbart and in the Trump campaign, Bannon promoted conservative and nationalist ideologies, often aligning with Christian nationalist values and narratives. Although not solely focused on Christian nationalism and more oriented towards nationalism more broadly, Bannon’s influence in shaping the political landscape and amplifying the voices of the far-right contributed to the resurgence of Christian nationalist sentiments in the United States.
Steve Bannon, by Midjourney
  • Baptist Press — The Baptist Press, established in 1946, is the official news service of the Southern Baptist Convention, the largest Protestant denomination in the United States.
  • George Barna — George Barna is a renowned American pollster, researcher, author, and speaker, best known for his extensive research on religion, culture, and public opinion. In 1984, he founded the Barna Group, a market research and polling firm specializing in studying the religious beliefs and behaviors of Americans, as well as the intersection of faith and culture.
  • Jeff Barke — Dr. Jeff Barke is an American physician, conservative activist, and author, known for his outspoken views on various public health and policy issues. He came out against the majority of the covid-19 public health measures including mask mandates, stay-at-home orders, and vaccines along with pushing unproven treatments.
  • Mari Barke — Mari Barke serves on the Orange County Board of Education, having been first elected in 2018. Married to Dr. Jeff Barke, she shares her husband’s conservative political views.
  • Stephen Barney — Stephen Barney is a conservative philanthropist, American businessman and donor to various conservative organizations, political campaigns, and educational initiatives.
  • David Barton — David Barton is an influential American evangelical Christian author, speaker, and political activist, known for his advocacy of conservative Christian values in politics and education. Born on January 28, 1954, in Texas, Barton is the founder and president of WallBuilders, a national organization known for its revisionist historical claims — including the idea that the First Amendment is not meant to establish freedom of religion.
  • Gary Bauer — Gary Bauer is known for his staunch advocacy of social conservatism and his prominent roles in various right-wing organizations. Born in Kentucky, Bauer served in the Reagan administration, first as the Deputy Under Secretary for Planning and Budget in the Department of Education, then as the Under Secretary of Education and Chief Domestic Policy Advisor. He left the White House in 1989 to become the president of the Family Research Council, a position he held until 1999. Bauer is especially known for his conservative views on issues such as abortion and same-sex marriage. In 2000, he made an unsuccessful bid for the Republican presidential nomination. Since then, he’ has remained active in conservative politics, notably founding’s founded the Campaign for Working Families, a political action committee dedicated to electing conservative candidates to office.
  • Andrew Beck — Brand consultant and member of the Christian nationalist secretive fraternal order, the Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR).
  • Glenn Beck — Glenn Beck is a prominent American conservative political commentator, radio host, television producer, and founder of the news and entertainment network, TheBlaze. He began his career in radio as a DJ, but his career took a turn towards political commentary in the 2000s. Beck hosted the nationally syndicated radio talk show, “The Glenn Beck Program,” and his television show, “Glenn Beck,” which aired on Fox News from 2009 to 2011, was known for its emotionally charged commentary, chalkboard diagrams, and historical analysis. His shows have often been controversial for their provocative content. Beck is recognized for his libertarian-leaning conservatism and his vocal support for the Tea Party movement.
Glenn Beck is shouting on TV, by Midjourney
  • Becket Fund for Religious Liberty — The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty is a legal advocacy group that often aligns with Christian nationalist agendas by championing cases that promote conservative religious values under the guise of defending religious freedom. While it purports to protect all religious traditions, the organization frequently takes on high-profile cases that advance a conservative Christian perspective, challenging laws and policies related to reproductive rights, LGBTQ+ protections, and the separation of church and state, thereby pushing a broader agenda that critics argue undermines secular governance and pluralistic values.
  • David and Jason Benham — David Benham, along with his twin brother Jason, is a prominent figure in American conservative circles, known for his outspoken views on Christianity and social issues. Prior to his involvement in political and social activism, Benham was a professional baseball player, drafted by the Boston Red Sox in 1998. After retiring from baseball, he and his brother co-founded the Benham Companies, a real estate conglomerate. The brothers gained national attention when their planned HGTV show, “Flip It Forward,” was canceled in 2014 due to controversy over their views on homosexuality and abortion. They are known for their strong pro-life stance, their opposition to same-sex marriage, and their misunderstanding of religious freedom.
  • Philip “Flip” Benham — Philip “Flip” Benham is an American evangelical Christian minister and anti-abortion activist, notable for his leadership roles in pro-life organizations. He was born on April 16, 1948, in Hartford, Connecticut. Benham is the father of David and Jason Benham, also known for their conservative activism. Flip Benham was the director of Operation Save America (formerly known as Operation Rescue National), a pro-life group advocating for the criminalization of abortion. The organization has been associated with protests at abortion clinics and other locations. Benham’s activism has often courted controversy, and he has been arrested multiple times during demonstrations. His vocal stances on issues such as abortion and homosexuality reflect his conservative Christian beliefs.
  • Robert J. Billings — Robert J. Billings was a significant figure in the American conservative movement, particularly known for his contributions to the rise of the Christian right in the late 20th century. Born on October 19, 1929, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Billings advocated for Christian education, founding Christian schools and serving as a superintendent in Wisconsin. His involvement in politics began in earnest in the 1970s, when he co-founded the American Association of Christian Schools and later became an influential figure in the Moral Majority, an organization that played a key role in mobilizing conservative Christian voters. Billings served as an advisor to President Ronald Reagan and was an instrumental figure in shaping the political landscape of the Christian right. He passed away on November 3, 1997.
  • Dr. Henry Blackaby — Dr. Henry Blackaby is an influential Christian pastor, author, and speaker, best known for his work “Experiencing God: Knowing and Doing the Will of God,” a study that has sold millions of copies worldwide. Born on July 11, 1935, in British Columbia, Canada, Blackaby served as a pastor in California and Canada before becoming the president of the Canadian Southern Baptist Conference. In 1976, Blackaby started working for the Home Mission Board (now North American Mission Board) of the Southern Baptist Convention. His work in spiritual revival and church leadership has had a profound impact on evangelical Christianity, particularly in the Southern Baptist tradition. His “Experiencing God” study, developed with his son Richard, has been widely used in churches and study groups and is considered a seminal text in contemporary Christian education.
  • Sen Marsha Blackburn (R-TN) — Marsha Blackburn is a prominent figure in American conservative politics, known for her tenure as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee. Born on June 6, 1952, in Laurel, Mississippi, Blackburn attended Mississippi State University, earning a degree in home economics. Her political career began in the Tennessee State Senate, where she served from 1998 to 2002. In 2002, Blackburn was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, representing Tennessee’s 7th congressional district, where she developed a reputation as a staunch conservative, particularly on issues such as healthcare, internet privacy, and fiscal responsibility. In 2018, Blackburn was elected to the U.S. Senate, becoming the first woman from Tennessee to serve in the upper chamber. Known for her support of President Donald Trump and her opposition to big government, Blackburn has remained a significant figure in the Republican Party and American conservative politics.
Senator Marsha Blackburn from Tennessee, by Midjourney
  • Morton Blackwell — Morton Blackwell is an influential figure in American conservative politics, best known for his role in the development and training of young conservative activists. Born on November 16, 1939, in LaHarpe, Illinois, Blackwell became involved in conservative activism early in life, working on Barry Goldwater‘s 1964 presidential campaign and serving as executive director of the College Republicans. In 1980, he was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to the position of Special Assistant to the President for Public Liaison, working on youth outreach. Blackwell is perhaps best known as the founder and president of the Leadership Institute, an organization established in 1979 that provides training for conservative activists, particularly college students.
  • Bob Jones University — Bob Jones University (BJU) is a private, non-denominational evangelical university located in Greenville, South Carolina. It was founded in 1927 by Bob Jones Sr., a prominent evangelist and religious leader, with the aim of creating a training center for Christian workers. Throughout its history, BJU has been known for its conservative cultural and religious views. The university requires students to adhere to a strict code of conduct in line with its religious beliefs. Historically, BJU has been at the center of several controversies, notably regarding its policies on racial segregation, which it maintained until 1971, and its ban on interracial dating, which was not lifted until 2000. Despite these controversies, BJU has had a significant influence on conservative Christian education in the United States.
  • Lauren Boebert — US Representative from Colorado who has been closely associated with Christian nationalist principles.
  • Bolthouse Foundation — The Bolthouse Foundation is a private foundation established by the Bolthouse family, who made their fortune in the farming and food production industry, notably through the Bolthouse Farms brand. The foundation’s mission has been to invest in Christian organizations and causes that align with their commitment to spreading the Christian faith and promoting social good. The foundation’s funding has often focused on supporting Christian education, religious activities, and other nonprofit organizations that align with their values.
  • Dick Bott — Dick Bott was an influential figure in American Christian radio broadcasting, known for founding the Bott Radio Network. Born on March 23, 1928, in Kansas City, Missouri, Bott launched the Bott Radio Network in 1962, which grew to become one of the nation’s largest Christian radio networks, featuring Bible teaching, Christian news, and music. Bott’s commitment to broadcasting Christian content led to a network that includes over 100 radio stations across the United States. Bott’s influence extended beyond his radio network, as he served on the boards of numerous Christian organizations and was a strong supporter of Christian education. He passed away on November 6, 2019.
Christian radio, by Midjourney
  • Bott Radio Network — A network of 120 Christian radio stations operating in 14 of the United States, broadcasting Christian talk radio programs.
  • Lt. Gen. William Boykin (ret.) — Lieutenant General William G. “Jerry” Boykin is a retired American Army officer and conservative political commentator known for his Christian views and involvement in special operations. Born on April 19, 1948, in Wilson, North Carolina, Boykin’s military career spanned over 36 years, during which he played key roles in several U.S. military actions, including the Iran hostage rescue attempt and operations in Grenada and Somalia. He was one of the original members of the U.S. Army’s Delta Force and eventually served as its commander. He also served as the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Intelligence under President George W. Bush. After retiring from the military, Boykin became an outspoken conservative Christian activist, serving as Executive Vice President of the Family Research Council, a conservative Christian think-tank and lobbying organization. He has drawn controversy for his comments on Islam and other topics.
  • Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation — The Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation is one of the largest and most influential conservative grantmaking foundations in the United States. Established in 1942 by Lynde and Harry Bradley, co-founders of the Allen-Bradley Company, a successful Milwaukee-based electronics and industrial automation manufacturer, the foundation began its significant conservative philanthropic activity in the 1980s, after the sale of Allen-Bradley to Rockwell International. It has provided substantial funding to conservative think tanks, advocacy groups, and scholars, with a focus on areas such as limited government, free markets, education, and the traditional family structure. The foundation has had a considerable impact on shaping conservative policy and intellectual discourse in the United States.
  • Bob Branch — Bob Branch is an educator and conservative political figure known for his involvement in Arizona politics. Branch is recognized for his conservative stance on issues such as education, immigration, and the Second Amendment. He ran for the position of Arizona’s Superintendent of Public Instruction in 2018, campaigning on a platform of local control of education, school safety, and curriculum transparency.
gun rights in Arizona and the 2nd Amendment / 2A position
  • Lincoln Brewster — Lincoln Brewster is an American contemporary Christian musician and worship pastor known for his guitar-based songs. Born on July 30, 1971, in Fairbanks, Alaska, Brewster developed a passion for music at a young age, with his mother nurturing his talent. He became a sought-after session guitarist in his early 20s and had the opportunity to work with mainstream artists, including journeyman rocker Steve Perry. However, Brewster felt a spiritual calling to use his musical talents for religious purposes and transitioned to contemporary Christian music. In addition to his music career, Brewster has served as a worship pastor at churches including the Bayside Church in California.
  • Jim Bridenstine — a former U.S. Representative and NASA Administrator. Though not overtly a Christian nationalist, his political stances often align with conservative Christian values. He has advocated for limited government and traditional family structures.
  • Harold O. J. Brown — was a theologian and co-founder of the Christian Action Council. He was instrumental in shaping the Christian right movement, emphasizing the role of Christianity in public life.
  • Pat Buchanan — a political commentator and former presidential candidate. He has often fused conservative Christian beliefs with his political ideology, advocating for a return to traditional American values.
Christian Nationalism Books
  • Mark Bucher — a lesser-known figure in the Christian nationalist movement. He is an attorney who has been involved in legal cases that aim to advance conservative Christian principles in public policy.
  • Building a Nation — not a person but a concept often invoked by Christian nationalists to emphasize the role of Christianity in the founding and sustaining of the United States.
  • Jonathan Cain — a musician, best known as a member of the band Journey. His connection to Christian nationalism is tenuous but he has expressed strong Christian beliefs.
  • Capitol Hill Prayer Partners — Capitol Hill Prayer Partners is a Christian organization that mobilizes prayer networks to support and intercede for government officials and legislative matters in Washington, D.C. Critics argue that its efforts align with Christian nationalist agendas, seeking to integrate religious influence into political processes and decision-making.
  • Capitol Ministries — an organization that aims to evangelize elected officials. It has been criticized for pushing a Christian nationalist agenda by seeking to influence policy through religious teachings.
  • Cardinal Mindszenty Foundation — this foundation is named after a Hungarian Cardinal who opposed communism and has been adopted as a symbol by some Christian nationalists in their fight against secularism.
  • Ben Carson — a retired neurosurgeon and former U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. While not explicitly a Christian nationalist, his conservative views often align with the movement’s principles.
Ben Carson and Donald Trump, by Midjourney
  • CBN University — now known as Regent University, the institution was founded by Pat Robertson. It aims to provide a Christian education and has been influential in training leaders who align with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Center for Arizona Policy — The Center for Arizona Policy (CAP) is a conservative advocacy organization that promotes legislation aligned with traditional Christian values, focusing on issues such as pro-life policies, school choice, and opposition to LGBTQ+ rights. Critics argue that CAP’s agenda often reflects Christian nationalist ideals, aiming to influence public policy to reflect their specific religious beliefs and values.
  • Center for Renewing America — Christian nationalist Russell Vought founded this think tank, which is a pro-Trump organization advocating for policies that reflect Vought’s vision for America. Vought served as Trump’s Director of OMB, and currently serves as the leader of the RNC Platform Committee. He is also a key leader of Project 2025, where according to Paul Dans he leads 30 teams of over 1000 people working to remake the federal government and establish a Christian theocracy in America.
  • A Choice Not an Echo — a political pamphlet by Phyllis Schlafly, published in 1964. It has been influential in conservative circles and is often cited by Christian nationalists as a call to action against liberal ideologies.
  • Spencer Chretien — Former Special Assistant to Trump and currently one of the 3 main leaders of Project 2025, the Christian nationalist plan to remake America according to their extremist vision.
  • Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) — Founded by Pat Robertson, CBN is a television network with a Christian focus. It has been a significant platform for disseminating Christian nationalist views and influencing American politics.
  • Christian Coalition — a political organization founded by Pat Robertson. It aims to mobilize conservative Christians in the U.S. and has been a driving force in the Christian nationalist movement since the 1990s.
  • Christian homeschooling movement — advocates for homeschooling as a way to instill Christian values in children. It has gained traction among Christian nationalists who view public education as secular and morally corrupt.
  • Christian Legal Society — The Christian Legal Society (CLS) is a nationwide association of Christian attorneys, law students, and legal professionals dedicated to integrating faith with the practice of law, advocating for religious freedom, and promoting justice. CLS’s efforts often align with Christian nationalist objectives, aiming to shape public policy and legal standards in accordance with conservative Christian values, thereby influencing the legal landscape to reflect their religious beliefs.
  • Christian Satellite Network — a media outlet that broadcasts Christian content. While not overtly nationalist, it serves as a platform for voices that often align with Christian nationalist views.
  • J. C. Church — a pastor and political activist who has been involved in promoting Christian nationalist ideologies. He advocates for the integration of Christian principles into American governance.
  • Church United — an organization that aims to politically mobilize churches. It has been criticized for promoting a Christian nationalist agenda, particularly in local and state politics.
  • Church Voter Lookup — a tool often used by Christian nationalist groups to identify and mobilize Christian voters. It aims to influence elections in favor of candidates who uphold Christian values.
  • Citizens for Community Values — Citizens for Community Values (CCV) is a conservative advocacy organization that promotes traditional family values, focusing on issues such as opposing LGBTQ+ rights, pornography, and comprehensive sex education in schools. Critics argue that CCV’s agenda aligns with Christian nationalist ideals, seeking to impose a narrow interpretation of Christian morality on public policy and legislation.
  • Claremont Institute — An influential right-wing think tank with fellows who participated in the attempts to overturn the 2020 election, and who have promoted the idea of an American authoritarian “Red Caesar” who might redeem a decadent nation.
  • Tom Coburn — Tom Coburn was a U.S. Senator known for his conservative stances. While not explicitly a Christian nationalist, his political ideology often aligned with the movement’s principles.
  • Mary Colbert — a Christian author and speaker. She is known for her books that blend Christian teachings with conservative political views, making her a voice in the Christian nationalist sphere.
  • Concerned Women for America — a socially conservative Christian women’s activist group. It focuses on issues like abortion and religious freedom and has been influential in promoting Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Conscience and Religious Freedom Division — this division within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services aims to protect religious freedoms in healthcare. It has been praised by Christian nationalists for upholding Christian values in public policy.
  • Conservative Caucus — a political organization that aims to mobilize grassroots conservatives. While not exclusively Christian nationalist, it often aligns with the movement’s goals.
  • Kellyanne Conway — a political strategist best known for her role as counselor to President Donald Trump. She has often defended policies that resonate with Christian nationalist ideologies.
Kellyanne Conway bloody from the fight, by Midjourney
  • Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation — this alliance focuses on environmental stewardship from a Christian perspective. It often opposes mainstream climate science, aligning more closely with the conservative Christian viewpoints of climate change denialism.
  • Council for National Policy (CNP) — a secretive organization that brings together influential conservatives, many of whom are Christian nationalists. It aims to shape public policy in line with conservative Christian values.
  • Culture Impact Teams (CITs) — grassroots groups often found in churches, organized by the Family Research Council (FRC). They aim to influence local politics and culture in line with Christian nationalist principles.
  • Jan Crouch — She was a co-founder of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), a major Christian television network. TBN has served as a prominent platform for Christian nationalist voices.
  • Paul Crouch — also a co-founder of TBN and husband to Jan Crouch. Like his wife, he played a significant role in disseminating Christian content that often aligns with nationalist ideologies.
  • Rafael Cruz — Ted Cruz’s father and an American evangelical preacher.
  • Ted Cruz — a U.S. Senator from Texas known for his staunch conservative views. He has been a vocal advocate for integrating Christian values into American governance, making him a key figure in the Christian nationalist movement.
  • Dr. Kenyn M. Cureton — a Baptist minister and Vice President for Church Ministries at the Family Research Council. He is known for advocating the role of Christianity in American public life, aligning with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Robert Lewis Dabney — Robert Lewis Dabney was a 19th-century theologian and Confederate Army chaplain. His writings have been cited by modern Christian nationalists as foundational texts for their movement.
  • The Daily Signal — a news outlet run by The Heritage Foundation. It often publishes articles that resonate with Christian nationalist and conservative viewpoints.
  • Marjorie Dannenfelser — the President of the Susan B. Anthony List, an organization that focuses on electing pro-life candidates. She is a key figure in the Christian nationalist movement.
  • Paul Dans — one of the key leaders of the Christian nationalist Project 2025, and a longtime Heritage Foundation staffer.
  • Jeff Denham — a former U.S. Representative from California. While not overtly a Christian nationalist, his conservative stances often align with the movement’s principles.
  • Betsy DeVos — a former U.S. Secretary of Education known for her advocacy for “school choice” (i.e. allowing parents to use public tax dollars to send their kids to private Christian academies) and Christian education, making her a significant figure in the Christian nationalist movement.
  • Richard DeVos — Richard DeVos was an American entrepreneur and co-founder of Amway. He was a major donor to conservative and Christian causes.
  • James Dobson — the founder of Focus on the Family, an organization that promotes Christian values in American families. He is a key figure in the Christian nationalist movement.
  • Mark Drever — a lesser-known figure in the Christian nationalist movement who has been involved in various Christian organizations.
  • Karen Rudolph Drollinger — Ralph Drollinger’s wife who reportedly left him for another woman.
  • Ralph Drollinger — the founder of Capitol Ministries, an organization that aims to evangelize elected officials and establish Bible study groups for political leaders. He has been criticized for pushing a Christian nationalist agenda, as well as for advocating corporal punishment for children.
  • Dinesh D’Souza — a conservative author and filmmaker. While not explicitly a Christian nationalist, his works often resonate with the movement, particularly in his critiques of liberal ideologies.
  • Alan P. Dye — a Washington, D.C.-based attorney known for representing conservative and Christian organizations. His legal work often intersects with the goals of the Christian nationalist movement.
  • Eagle Forum — Founded by Phyllis Schlafly, the Eagle Forum is a conservative organization that has been instrumental in opposing feminist and liberal policies, often from a Christian nationalist perspective.
  • Stuart Epperson — the co-founder of Salem Media Group, a Christian and conservative media company. He has been influential in disseminating Christian nationalist views through various media platforms.
  • Equal Rights Amendment — a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution aimed at guaranteeing equal legal rights regardless of sex. It has been opposed by some Christian nationalists who argue it undermines traditional family values.
The women behind the Equal Rights Amendment that sent the right-wing shrieking in fear, by Midjourney
  • Frank Erb — serves as a minister to California State Capitol leaders and is associated with Capitol Ministries. He aims to integrate Christian principles into governance, aligning with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Tony Evans — a pastor and author who focuses on building strong Christian families. While not overtly a Christian nationalist, his teachings often align with the movement’s principles.
  • Jerry Falwell — Jerry Falwell was a prominent televangelist and founder of the Moral Majority, an organization that played a key role in the rise of the Christian right and Christian nationalism.
  • Faith and Action — Faith and Action is a conservative Christian advocacy group that aims to influence policymakers by promoting biblical values and religious principles within the public square. Critics argue that the organization’s activities often align with Christian nationalist goals, seeking to integrate specific religious doctrines into public policy and governance, thereby challenging the pillar of separation of church and state.
  • Faith & Freedom Coalition — Organization led by Ralph Reed that aims to mobilize conservative religious voters and has been a significant force in promoting Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in electoral politics.
  • The Family — Also known as The Fellowship, this organization is a Christian association that has been criticized for its secretive nature and influence on American politicians. It is often associated with Christian nationalist agendas.
  • Family Christian Academy (FCA) — a private religious academy offering a “Christ-centered” curriculum and the teaching of a “biblical worldview.”
  • Family Life Radio — Family Life Radio is a Christian radio network broadcasting contemporary Christian music and Christian talk radio programming across the United States.
  • Family Policy Alliance — The Family Policy Alliance is a conservative Christian organization in the United States that advocates for various policy issues from a faith-based perspective. It focuses on issues such as religious freedom, anti-abortion policies, and the promotion of the traditional family structure (aka Strict Father Morality).
  • Family Policy Councils — Family Policy Councils in the United States are typically conservative organizations at the state level that focus on lobbying and advocating for policies they believe support family values. These councils often address issues like gay marriage, parental rights, religious liberty, and anti-abortion initiatives.
  • Family Research Council (FRC) — The FRC is a prominent conservative Christian group that advocates for policies they believe uphold traditional family values. It is influential in right-wing politics, often shaping public debate on social issues.
  • Family Worship Center — Associated with the ministry of televangelist Jimmy Swaggart, the organization reflects his blend of evangelical worship and conservative family values.
  • Fellowship Foundation — Also known as “The Fellowship” or “The Family,” this is a religiously-oriented group that operates the National Prayer Breakfast in Washington, D.C. It is known for its influence on American politics, fostering relationships among political, business, and religious leaders.
The National Prayer Breakfast, Donald Trump presiding -- by Midjourney
  • First Liberty Institute — First Liberty Institute is a legal organization dedicated to defending and restoring religious freedoms through litigation, education, and public policy work. Critics say that its activities often align with Christian nationalist goals, seeking to influence public policy and legal precedents to reflect conservative Christian values and challenge the separation of church and state.
  • Nate Fischer — A Texas-based member of the clandestine Christian nationalist fraternal order the Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR).
  • Reverend Wilber Fisk — An influential 19th-century Methodist educator and theologian, remembered for his strong advocacy for Methodist doctrine and education. His work has inspired many current Christian nationalist groups and ideologies.
  • Tami Fitzgerald — Fitzgerald is a contemporary figure known for her conservative activism, particularly in North Carolina, where she has been a prominent voice on issues like gay marriage and gender, reflecting broader right-wing advocacy trends.
  • Florida Family Action — This is an organization that works at the state level in Florida, engaging in grassroots lobbying and electoral involvement to promote conservative values on social issues.
  • Florida Family Action PAC — The political action committee of the Florida Family Action, this group supports candidates and initiatives in Florida that align with its conservative, family-centered policy goals.
  • Florida Family Policy Council — This council operates in Florida, advocating for conservative social policies. It’s part of a network of state-based conservative policy groups with similar aims.
  • Focus on the Family — A well-known evangelical organization based in Colorado Springs, it promotes conservative policies related to family structure and parenting, and is a major producer of Christian-themed media content.
  • Foster Friess — Friess was a prominent conservative donor and philanthropist, who financially supported various Republican candidates and causes aligned with right-wing politics until his death in 2021.
  • Free Congress Foundation — Founded by Paul Weyrich, this right-wing think tank historically has been instrumental in promoting conservative legislative agendas and played a pivotal role in the development of conservative strategies and policies.
  • Lynn Friess — Lynn Friess is the widow of Foster Friess and has continued to be active in philanthropy and conservative causes, supporting various initiatives that align with her and her late husband’s values, particularly in the realms of education, Christian outreach, and family services.
  • Jim Garlow — A pastor and author, Garlow is a notable figure in conservative Christian circles, known for his advocacy on traditional marriage and anti-abortion issues, and has been a key influence in the intersection of faith and politics. He is recognized for his efforts to mobilize evangelical Christians to engage in political processes with the aim of shaping government policies and societal norms according to their interpretation of Christian values. He has been a vocal supporter of traditional marriage, anti-abortion policies, and religious liberty issues, often framing these stances as essential to preserving America’s Christian heritage.
  • Rosemary Schindler Garlow — A speaker and activist, she is married to Jim Garlow, and is also a distant relative of Oskar Schindler. She is involved in Christian ministry work and advocacy, often in conjunction with her husband’s activities.
  • Godspeak Calvary Chapel — Non-denominational church in California that gained attention in conservative media for its defiance of public health orders during the COVID-19 pandemic.
  • Barry Goldwater — Known as the “father of modern conservatism,” Goldwater was a five-term U.S. Senator from Arizona and the 1964 Republican nominee for President. His libertarian-leaning conservative philosophy laid the foundation for the conservative resurgence in the following decades.
Barry Goldwater running for US President, by Midjourney
  • Peggy Goldwater — As the wife of Barry Goldwater, Peggy Goldwater was a supportive figure in his political career. While less politically active herself, she played a role in the personal side of the conservative movement during her husband’s career.
  • Grace Community Church, Sun Valley — A prominent evangelical church in California, led by Pastor John MacArthur. It is known for its conservative theological stance and has been influential in evangelical Christian circles.
  • Billy Graham — Reverend Billy Graham was one of the most influential Christian evangelists of the 20th century, serving as a spiritual advisor to multiple U.S. presidents and preaching to millions globally, with a message that was generally hard-lined conservative.
  • Franklin Graham — Famed evangelist Billy Graham’s son, Franklin Graham is a vocal supporter of Trump and has been actively involved in promoting his policies. He frequently met with Trump and provided spiritual guidance, reinforcing the administration’s ties with the evangelical community.
  • The Green family — Best known for founding Hobby Lobby, the Green family is prominent in conservative circles for their Christian faith and legal battles over religious freedom and opposition to certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act.
  • Marjorie Taylor Greene — Republican US Representative from Georgia who explicitly identifies as a Christian nationalist.
  • Ken Ham — a young-earth creationist and the founder of Answers in Genesis, the Creation Museum, and the Ark Encounter. Ham is a significant figure in promoting a literal interpretation of the Bible and opposing evolutionary theory, which is often referenced in conservative Christian education debates. In February 2014, Ken Ham debated Bill Nye, a well-known science educator and television personality, on the topic of creationism versus evolution. The event focused on whether creationism is a viable model of origins in today’s modern scientific era, with Ham defending a literal interpretation of the Bible’s creation story and Nye advocating for the scientific evidence supporting evolution and an ancient Earth​.
  • Abraham Hamilton III — host of American Family Radio‘s “Hamilton Corner” who described the 2017 mass shooting in Las Vegas as “Satan’s work” that was “immune to legislation.” He went on to claim that the Democrats were “exploiting” the victims by calling for hearings on gun control.
  • Mark Harris — Mark Harris is an American pastor and political candidate from North Carolina. Harris is known for his involvement in the North Carolina Baptist Convention, where he served as president from 2011 to 2013. He played a key role in the passage of the 2012 Marriage Amendment, which defined marriage as between one man and one woman in North Carolina. Harris has run for the U.S. House of Representatives multiple times, including a controversial 2018 campaign that was marred by allegations of election fraud related to absentee ballots, leading to a call for a new election. Despite this, he is running again for Congress in the 2024 election​. He gained attention for his sermons advocating for women to “submit” to their husbands.
  • Kristan Hawkins — Kristan Hawkins is the president of Students for Life of America (SFLA), a prominent anti-abortion organization. Born in 1984 in Wellsburg, West Virginia, she became involved in the pro-life movement at a young age and continued her activism through college, where she studied political science at Bethany College. Under her leadership since 2006, SFLA has grown significantly, now boasting over 1,400 campus groups across the United States. Hawkins is known for her dynamic public speaking and has been a vocal advocate for anti-abortion policies, participating in numerous debates and media appearances. She also hosts the “Explicitly Pro-Life” podcast, where she discusses issues related to abortion and the pro-life movement. Her efforts have made her a significant figure in contemporary pro-life advocacy, working to mobilize and equip the next generation of anti-abortion leaders.
  • Charles Haywood — A self-described “industrialist” and Chicago-educated attorney who helped to incorporate the secretive patriarchal Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR), and sits on its board.
  • Carl F. H. Henry — a prominent American evangelical theologian and a key figure in the neo-evangelical movement, advocating for evangelical engagement with broader culture while maintaining orthodox Christian theology who played a vital role in shaping evangelical thought in the 20th century. Henry’s influence continues through his foundational role in institutions like Fuller Theological Seminary and Christianity Today magazine.
  • Heritage Academy — Heritage Academy is a private Christian school known for its emphasis on providing education based on Christian principles and traditional academic subjects. Its mandatory American government courework has included the claim that the U.S. Constitution is founded on “biblical principles.”
Christian academies began sprouting up after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling ending segregation in schools
  • Heritage Action — Heritage Action for America is a conservative advocacy organization and the political action sister organization of the Heritage Foundation. It focuses on promoting conservative policies and legislation, and while not exclusively Christian nationalist, its activities often align with Christian nationalist principles, advocating for policies rooted in conservative Christian values.
  • Heritage Foundation — a prominent conservative think tank in Washington, D.C., established in 1973. It focuses on promoting conservative public policies based on principles like free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional values, and strong national defense. The foundation has significantly influenced American politics and policy through research, policy recommendations, and influencing decision-makers, making it a key player in shaping U.S. conservative policy.
  • Eric Heubeck — Eric Heubeck is known for his involvement in conservative political strategy, notably for authoring “The Integration of Theory and Practice: A Program for the New Traditionalist Movement,” which outlines strategies for conservative cultural renewal.
  • Hugh Hewitt — Hugh Hewitt is an American radio talk show host, lawyer, academic, and author, known for his nationally syndicated conservative talk radio show and his contributions as a political commentator.
  • Jack Hibbs — Jack Hibbs is a prominent evangelical pastor and founder of Calvary Chapel Chino Hills in California, known for his teachings and influence in Christian conservative circles.
  • Rob Hilarides
  • The Hillsdale Collegian — The Hillsdale Collegian is the student newspaper of Hillsdale College in Michigan, known for its coverage of campus events and its emphasis on conservative perspectives in higher education.
  • Kay Hiramine — Kay Hiramine has been linked to C. Peter Wagner through his involvement in Christian mission work and associations with the New Apostolic Reformation (NAR), a movement Wagner significantly influenced. Hiramine founded the Humanitarian International Services Group (HISG), which was reportedly part of the NAR’s broader network of organizations engaged in global outreach and humanitarian efforts. This network is known for integrating evangelical Christian teachings with humanitarian aid and development projects.
  • A. A. Hodge — Archibald Alexander Hodge (1823–1886) was an American Presbyterian theologian and principal of Princeton Seminary, recognized for his contributions to theological education and the Presbyterian Church.
  • Mike Huckabee — Mike Huckabee is an American politician, Christian minister, author, and commentator, who served as the 44th governor of Arkansas and unsuccessfully sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2008 and 2016.
Mike Huckabee, by Midjourney
  • Sarah Huckabee Sanders — Currently the sitting governor of Arkansas, she is the daughter of Mike Huckabee and the former Press Secretary of the Trump administration.
  • Humanitarian International Services Group (HISG) — HISG is an organization known for its humanitarian efforts with a Christian perspective, often involved in providing aid and support in crisis situations. Their work intertwines humanitarian aid with Christian values, which aligns them with aspects of Christian nationalism.
  • Nelson Bunker Hunt — Nelson Bunker Hunt was an American oil company executive known for his significant involvement in conservative Christian movements. He financially supported various Christian nationalist causes and was a major donor to conservative Christian organizations.
  • International Communion of Evangelical Churches — The International Communion of Evangelical Churches (ICEC) is a network of evangelical Christian churches that emphasizes biblical teachings and fosters global connections among its member congregations. Critics argue that ICEC’s efforts often align with Christian nationalist agendas, aiming to promote conservative Christian values and influence public policy through its expansive network of churches.
  • Institute for Creation Research — The Institute for Creation Research (ICR) is a Christian research organization that promotes a literal interpretation of the Bible’s creation narrative, conducting research and providing education to support young-Earth creationism. ICR’s efforts align with Christian nationalist objectives, seeking to influence public education and science policy to reflect biblical creationist views, often at the expense of established scientific consensus.
  • Institute on Religion and Democracy — The Institute on Religion and Democracy is a conservative Christian think tank that focuses on promoting their interpretation of Christian ethics within policy and society. They have been influential in advocating for Christian nationalist ideals within the United States.
  • David Jeremiah — David Jeremiah is a prominent Christian pastor and televangelist known for his evangelical teachings. While his ministry primarily focuses on evangelical Christianity, it occasionally intersects with Christian nationalist ideology.
  • Mike Johnson — The Republican Speaker of the House has strong ties to Christian nationalism, a viewpoint that seeks to integrate Christian beliefs and principles into government policies and practices. Johnson’s actions and statements align closely with this ideology. He’s been influenced by prominent figures such as David Barton.
  • Bob Jones Sr. — Bob Jones Sr. was an American evangelist and the founder of Bob Jones University, a private, non-denominational evangelical university. The university and Jones himself have been associated with conservative Christian ideologies, some of which align with Christian nationalism.
  • Bob Jones University — Bob Jones University is a private, non-denominational evangelical Christian university known for its conservative cultural and religious values. Historically, it has been associated with and influential in promoting conservative Christian ideologies, as well as notorious for continuing to support segregation — and remaining a segregated institution — until 1971.
Bob Jones University, one of many religious institutions in the south that remained segregated long after Brown V. Board of Education in defiance
  • Judicial Watch — Judicial Watch is a conservative advocacy group that promotes transparency, accountability, and integrity in government, politics, and the law. Founded in 1994, the organization utilizes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and litigation to investigate and expose government corruption and misconduct​.
  • Kingdom Warriors — Kingdom Warriors is a term that can refer to various Christian groups or movements that advocate for applying Christian principles to societal and political life. These groups often align with Christian nationalist ideologies in their efforts to influence culture and politics according to their religious beliefs.
  • KMMJ – KMMJ is a Christian radio station known for broadcasting content that aligns with evangelical Christian values.
  • C. Everett Koop — C. Everett Koop was an American pediatric surgeon and public health administrator, known for serving as the Surgeon General of the United States, and a devout Christian.
  • Skyler Kressin — A tax consultant based in Coeur d’Alene, Idaho who plays a central administrative role in the secret patriarchal Christian order of the Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR).
  • Ku Klux Klan — The Ku Klux Klan is a white supremacist hate group with a long history of violent extremism. Their ideology often misappropriates Christian symbols and rhetoric to promote their racist agenda.
The KKK loved a good cross burning on a Saturday night
  • Beverly LaHaye — Beverly LaHaye is a Christian conservative activist and founder of Concerned Women for America, a group known for promoting Christian conservative policies. Her work often intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for policies based on conservative Christian values.
  • Tim LaHaye — Tim LaHaye was an evangelical Christian minister and author, best known for the “Left Behind” series about the End Times and world-ending apocalypse. His works and ministry often promoted a conservative Christian worldview, aligning at times with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Wayne LaPierre — Wayne LaPierre was the CEO and executive vice president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) for many years. While primarily focused on gun rights advocacy, his influence occasionally intersects with Christian nationalist groups that share common conservative values.
  • Karoline Leavitt — The national press secretary for the Trump 2024 campaign, who has also served on the Presidential Personnel Academy of Project 2025.
  • Bill Lee — Bill Lee, as the Governor of Tennessee, has implemented policies and supported legislation that align with conservative Christian values. His governance reflects aspects of Christian nationalist ideology, emphasizing traditional Christian values in policy-making.
  • Leonard Leo — Leonard Leo is a prominent conservative legal activist, known for his influence in the Federalist Society and the composition of today’s Supreme Court. He plays a significant role in promoting conservative judges, some of whom align with Christian nationalist principles.
  • Mark Levin — Mark Levin is a conservative commentator and radio host, known for his advocacy of conservative policies. While his primary focus is on conservative politics, his viewpoints sometimes resonate with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Liberty Fellowship — Liberty Fellowship is a conservative Christian organization that focuses on equipping believers to defend their faith and influence culture through a biblical worldview. Critics argue that its activities often align with Christian nationalist agendas, promoting the integration of conservative Christian values into public policy and governance.
  • Liberty University — Liberty University is a private evangelical Christian university founded by Jerry Falwell Sr. The university is a major hub for conservative Christian education and activism.
  • LifeWay Research — LifeWay Research is an evangelical Christian research group that provides research and resources for churches. Christian nationalist ideologies guide their work in terms of influencing church and societal policies.
  • Rush Limbaugh — Rush Limbaugh was a conservative radio host and commentator, known for his influential role in conservative media. His advocacy for conservative politics intersected with Christian nationalist ideologies.
Rush Limbaugh on the radio, by Midjourney
  • Barry Loudermilk — Barry Loudermilk is a U.S. Congressman known for his conservative Christian views. His legislative actions and public statements often reflect Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for policies based on conservative Christian principles.
  • John MacArthur — John MacArthur is a prominent evangelical pastor and author, known for his conservative theological views and extreme misogyny. He has been known to preach frequently on the subject of female subordination and “wifely submission” as being ordained by God.
  • Maclellan Foundation — The Maclellan Foundation is a private, family-run foundation based in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Established in 1945, it is one of the oldest Christian foundations in the United States. The foundation focuses on funding initiatives that advance Christian faith and promote biblical values globally. Its key areas of support include evangelism, discipleship, theological education, church planting, and leadership development.
  • Rachel MacNair — Rachel MacNair is known for her work in the pro-life movement, with a focus on consistent life ethics. While her work is primarily in the anti-abortion arena, it sometimes intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies in terms of advocating for policies based on Christian ethics.
  • Danielle Madison — Wife of Ralph Drollinger.
  • March for Life — The March for Life is an annual event advocating against abortion in the United States. While its primary focus is on anti-abortion activism, the event often draws support from Christian nationalist groups, advocating for policies aligned with conservative Christian values.
  • Ed McAteer — Ed McAteer was known as a leading figure in the Religious Right movement and was influential in mobilizing conservative Christians into political activism. His efforts significantly contributed to the alignment of evangelical Christians with conservative and Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • The Moral Majority — The Moral Majority was a prominent American political organization associated with the Christian right, founded by Jerry Falwell in 1979. It played a significant role in mobilizing conservative Christians into political action, promoting policies aligned with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Jeanne Mancini — Jeanne Mancini is known for her role as the President of the March for Life, a major anti-abortion organization in the U.S. Her leadership focuses on advocating for anti-abortion policies, often resonating with Christian nationalist principles.
  • Manhattan Declaration — The Manhattan Declaration is a Christian manifesto issued in 2009, emphasizing the sanctity of life, traditional marriage, and religious freedom. It is supported by various Christian leaders and aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in its advocacy for public policies based on Christian ethics.
  • Rob McCoy — Rob McCoy is a pastor and former city council member known for his conservative Christian views. His public stance often aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the integration of Christian values in governance and society.
  • Mark Meadows — Mark Meadows is a former U.S. Congressman and White House Chief of Staff for Donald Trump, known for his conservative and Christian nationalist views. He has been influential in promoting policies that align with Christian nationalist ideologies.
Mark Meadows in front of the Capitol, by Midjourney
  • Mark Meckler — Tea Party activist and co-funder of Convention of States.
  • Janet Mefferd — Janet Mefferd is a conservative Christian radio host and commentator. Her broadcasts often emphasize conservative Christian viewpoints, aligning with Christian nationalist ideologies in discussions on culture and politics.
  • Roy Moore — Roy Moore is a former Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice known for his staunch conservative Christian views. His public and professional life has been marked by advocacy for Christian nationalist principles, particularly in legal and political contexts — as well as by controversy, when he was credibly accused by several women of having pursued a romantic relationship with him when they were teenagers and he was in his 30s.
  • Thomas More Society — The Thomas More Society is a conservative legal organization dedicated to defending religious freedoms, pro-life issues, and traditional family values from a Catholic perspective. Critics argue that the society’s work often aligns with Christian nationalist agendas, aiming to integrate religious doctrines into public policy and challenge laws that support reproductive rights and LGBTQ+ protections.
  • Museum of the Bible — The Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C., is dedicated to the history, narrative, and impact of the Bible. While it presents as an educational institution, its exhibits often align with conservative Christian perspectives, resonating with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • The Naked Communist — “The Naked Communist” is a book by W. Cleon Skousen, published in 1958, presenting a critique of communism and its perceived threats to Christian and American values. The book has been influential in conservative and Christian nationalist circles, advocating for anti-communist and conservative Christian ideals.
  • Penny Young Nance — Penny Young Nance is the CEO and President of Concerned Women for America, a Christian conservative advocacy group. Her leadership focuses on promoting policies and viewpoints aligned with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • National Center for Constitutional Studies — The National Center for Constitutional Studies is an organization known for promoting a conservative interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Its work often aligns with Christian nationalist principles, advocating for governance and policies based on conservative Christian values.
  • National Christian Foundation — The National Christian Foundation is one of the largest Christian grant-making foundations, supporting a wide range of Christian causes and organizations. Some of its funding goes to groups and initiatives that align with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • National Clergy Council — The National Clergy Council is an interdenominational association of conservative Christian leaders that seeks to influence public policy and promote biblical values within the legislative and executive branches of government. Critics argue that its efforts align with Christian nationalist agendas, aiming to integrate religious doctrines into public policy and challenge First Amendment rights to freedom of religion.
  • National Conservative Student Conference — This conference, organized by the Young America’s Foundation, gathers conservative students from across the U.S. to engage with conservative ideas, including those aligning with Christian nationalist ideologies.
National Conservative Student Conference, by Midjourney
  • National Federation of Republican Women — This organization is dedicated to empowering and mobilizing women in the Republican Party. Its activities sometimes intersect with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in advocating for conservative Christian policies.
  • National Legal Foundation — The National Legal Foundation (NLF) is a conservative Christian legal advocacy group that aims to influence public policy and defend religious liberties from a biblical perspective. Critics argue that the NLF’s activities often align with Christian nationalist objectives, seeking to integrate Christian principles into legislation and public life, thereby challenging the separation of church and state.
  • National Organization for Marriage (NOM) — The National Organization for Marriage (NOM) is an advocacy group that claims to protect and promote traditional marriage between one man and one woman. Founded in 2007, NOM engages in lobbying, education, and political activities to oppose same-sex marriage and support policies that reinforce the traditional family structure.
  • National Pro-Life Religious Council (NPRC) — The National Pro-Life Religious Council (NPRC) is an ecumenical Christian organization that unites various denominations to advocate for pro-life policies and oppose abortion, euthanasia, and other practices they believe undermine the sanctity of life. Critics argue that the NPRC’s efforts often align with Christian nationalist goals, aiming to influence public policy and legislation to reflect conservative Christian values and restrict reproductive rights.
  • National Religious Broadcasters — The National Religious Broadcasters (NRB) is an international association of Christian communicators that advocates for free speech and the inclusion of Christian perspectives in media. Critics argue that the NRB’s efforts to amplify conservative Christian viewpoints often align with Christian nationalist agendas, promoting policies and narratives that integrate religious doctrines into public policy and governance.
  • National Right to Life Committee — The National Right to Life Committee is the oldest and largest national anti-abortion organization in the United States, advocating for pro-life policies. Its advocacy often aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in its approach to legislative and cultural issues.
  • Richard John Neuhaus — Richard John Neuhaus was a prominent Catholic priest and theologian, known for his influence in the realm of religion and public life. His work often intersected with Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for the integration of Christian values into public policy.
  • New Apostolic Reformation (NAR) — A movement within evangelical Christianity that emerged in the late 20th century, emphasizing the restoration of the lost offices of church governance, particularly the roles of apostles and prophets. Proponents believe that contemporary apostles and prophets are essential for advancing God’s kingdom on Earth and that they receive direct revelations from God, guiding the church in spiritual warfare, societal transformation, and revival. The NAR is characterized by its focus on miracles, spiritual warfare, and a dominionist theology that aims to influence all spheres of society, including government, education, and the arts, to establish a Christian order. It is decentralized, with various leaders and ministries across the globe, and has been both influential and controversial within broader Christian circles due to its unconventional beliefs and practices.
  • New Christian Right — The New Christian Right is a politically and socially conservative Christian movement that emerged in the late 20th century. This movement is characterized by its advocacy for Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the role of Christianity in American public life.
  • Kristi Noem — Kristi Noem, as the Governor of South Dakota, is known for her conservative policies and alignment with Christian nationalist ideologies. Her governance and public statements often reflect a strong emphasis on traditional Christian values.
  • Gary North — Gary North is an economist, historian, and writer known for his advocacy of Christian Reconstructionism, a theological perspective that advocates the adoption of Biblical law in the United States.
Christian Nationalism Dictionary
  • North Carolina Family Policy Council — The North Carolina Family Policy Council is a conservative Christian organization focused on promoting family values and policies aligned with conservative Christian ethics. Their advocacy often intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing traditional Christian views in public policy.
  • Michael Novak — Michael Novak was a Catholic philosopher, journalist, and diplomat, known for his writings on capitalism, religion, and democracy. His work, blending Christian theology with democratic capitalism, sometimes resonated with Christian nationalist thought.
  • Old Time Gospel Hour — The Old Time Gospel Hour was a Christian radio and television ministry founded by Jerry Falwell Sr. This program was instrumental in spreading evangelical Christian teachings and often intersected with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • John M. Olin — John M. Olin was an industrialist and philanthropist, known for funding conservative causes through the John M. Olin Foundation. His contributions significantly supported academic and political endeavors aligned with conservative and Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Brad Onishi — former Christian nationalist turned critic of the movement.
  • Organicgirl — Brand of organic lettuce ultimately owned by a right-wing billionaire
  • Joel Osteen — Joel Osteen is a prominent televangelist and pastor of Lakewood Church, known for his motivational speaking and prosperity gospel teachings.
  • Pacific Justice Institute — The Pacific Justice Institute (PJI) is a conservative legal defense organization that focuses on defending religious freedoms, parental rights, and other civil liberties from a Christian perspective. Critics argue that PJI’s litigation efforts often align with Christian nationalist objectives, promoting policies and legal outcomes that integrate conservative Christian values into public governance and challenge the First Amendment‘s separation of church and state​.
  • Sarah Palin — Sarah Palin, former Governor of Alaska and Vice Presidential candidate, is known for her conservative Christian views. Her political career and public statements often reflect Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the integration of conservative Christian values into American politics.
Sarah Palin, patriotic drag queen -- by Midjourney
  • Tom Parker — Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court and 7 Mountains Dominionist who ruled in February of 2024 that IVF embryos are “children,” and their accidental destruction falls under the state’s Wrongful Death of a Minor Act, declaring that the people of Alabama have adopted the β€œtheologically based view of the sanctity of life” and said that β€œhuman life cannot be wrongfully destroyed without incurring the wrath of a holy God.”
  • “Pastor Briefings” — Events organized by the Family Research Council (FRC) that are “focused on shaping public policy and informed civic activism.”
  • Mike Pence — Mike Pence, former Vice President of the United States, is known for his conservative Christian beliefs and policies. His political career is characterized by advocacy for policies that align with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Pentecostals — Pentecostalism is a Christian movement known for its emphasis on the Holy Spirit, spiritual gifts, and vibrant worship. While diverse in its expressions, some segments of the Pentecostal movement intersect with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in advocating for the integration of Christian beliefs into public life.
  • Sonny Perdue — Sonny Perdue, former Governor of Georgia and U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, is known for his conservative policies and Christian beliefs. His political career has included support for policies that align with Christian nationalist ideologies. He has held fundraising events for Capitol Ministries, the group led by Christian nationalist Ralph Drollinger.
  • Tony Perkins — Tony Perkins is the president of the Family Research Council, a conservative Christian group known for its advocacy on social and family issues. His leadership and activism are closely aligned with Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for policies based on conservative Christian values.
  • Rick Perry — Rick Perry, former Governor of Texas and U.S. Secretary of Energy, is known for his conservative Christian beliefs and political career reflecting support for policies that align with Christian nationalist ideologies. He is famous for a gaffe during the Republican presidential primary debate in 2011 where he claimed he would abolish 3 federal agencies but could only name 2 of them.
  • Howard Phillips — Howard Phillips was a conservative political activist, known for founding the Constitution Party, which advocates for a government based on biblical principles. His political ideology and activism were closely aligned with Christian nationalist principles.
  • Mike Pompeo — Mike Pompeo, former U.S. Secretary of State and CIA Director, is known for his conservative Christian views. His political career and public statements often reflect Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the importance of Christian values in American foreign and domestic policy.
Mike Pompeo, former Secretary of State and all around nauseating dude, by Midjourney
  • Art Pope — Art Pope is a businessman and political donor known for his support of conservative causes and candidates in North Carolina and nationally. Pope has been active in the North Carolina House of Representatives and served as the state’s Budget Director under Governor Pat McCrory. He is known for his significant contributions to conservative causes and organizations, including founding the Libertarian Party of North Carolina.
  • POTUS Shield — POTUS Shield is a collection of Charismatic Christian leaders who focus on intercessory prayer and prophecy for the United States government and leadership. It aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in its support for leaders who uphold conservative Christian values.
  • Dennis Prager — Dennis Prager is a conservative radio talk show host and writer known for his religious and conservative viewpoints. His work often resonates with Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for the integration of Judeo-Christian values into American life.
  • Praise Network — The Praise Network is a group of Christian radio stations broadcasting religious content, often including evangelical and conservative Christian teachings. Its programming sometimes aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in promoting a Christian worldview.
  • Pray in Jesus Name Project — The Pray In Jesus Name Project is a conservative Christian advocacy group founded by former Navy chaplain Gordon Klingenschmitt, which focuses on promoting religious freedom and Christian values in government and society. Critics argue that its efforts often align with Christian nationalist goals, pushing for policies that integrate a specific interpretation of Christian doctrine into public law and governance.
  • Tom Price — Tom Price is a former U.S. Representative and Secretary of Health and Human Services, known for his conservative policies. His political career has occasionally intersected with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in the realm of health policy and religious freedom.
  • Erik Prince — Erik Prince, the founder of the private security and paramilitary firm Blackwater, is known for his conservative Christian views and his support for conservative causes. His views and activities sometimes align with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in the context of military and security affairs. He is the brother of Betsy DeVos, Michigan industrialist and Secretary of Education in the Trump administration.
Erik Prince and his Blackwater militia private stooges, by Midjourney
  • Project 2025 — Project 2025, led by Paul Dans and key conservative figures within The Heritage Foundation, sets forth an ambitious conservative vision aimed at fundamentally transforming the role of the federal government.
  • Scott Pruitt — Scott Pruitt, former Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, is known for his conservative Christian beliefs. His tenure at the EPA ended after less than 2 years, when he resigned as a result of a growing mass of corruption scandals and ethical violations.
  • Quiverfull movement — The Quiverfull movement is a Christian ideology advocating for large families and traditional gender roles, viewing children as a blessing from God.
  • Ronald Reagan — Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United States, was known for incorporating conservative Christian values into his policies and rhetoric. His presidency is often cited as aligning with Christian nationalist ideologies in promoting conservative Christian values in American governance.
  • Ralph Reed — Ralph Reed is the founder of the Faith and Freedom Coalition and was the former executive director of the Christian Coalition. He is a significant figure in Christian nationalist circles, advocating for conservative Christian values in politics.
  • Regent University — Founded in 1977 as CBN University by televangelist Pat Robertson in Virginia Beach, Virginia, Regent University is a private Christian university that stands out for its Christian ideology, pedagogy, and history.
  • Carolyn Richards
  • Road to Majority Conference — The Road to Majority Conference is an annual event hosted by the Faith and Freedom Coalition, aimed at mobilizing conservative Christians in politics. The conference aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, focusing on advancing conservative Christian values in governance.
  • Pat Robertson — Pat Robertson was a televangelist, founder of the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), and former presidential candidate. He is a major figure in Christian nationalist circles, known for his advocacy of conservative Christian values in American society and politics.
  • Brooke Rollins — She is a prominent ally in the Christian nationalist-dominated Project 2025 and has been instrumental in planning a conservative agenda for a potential second Trump term.
  • R.J. Rushdoony — Rousas John Rushdoony was a Calvinist theologian and philosopher, known as a foundational figure in the Christian Reconstructionism movement, advocating for applying Biblical law to all aspects of society. His ideology significantly influenced Christian nationalist thought.
  • Karl Rove — Karl Rove, a political consultant and strategist, is known for his role in shaping modern conservative politics, particularly during the presidency of George W. Bush.
  • John Rustin — John Rustin is the president of the North Carolina Family Policy Council, an organization focused on promoting family values from a conservative Christian perspective. He has been involved in advocating for policies that align with traditional Christian beliefs, including opposition to same-sex marriage and support for religious freedom measures. His work often intersects with themes of Christian nationalism, particularly in advocating for the integration of Christian principles in public policy and governance in North Carolina​.
  • SAGE Cons — SAGE Cons (Spiritually Active, Governance Engaged Conservatives) refers to a segment of conservative Christians who are highly engaged in the political process.
  • Salem Media Group / Salem Radio Group — The Salem Radio Group is a leading broadcaster of Christian and conservative content, operating numerous radio stations across the United States. Its programming often aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, promoting conservative Christian viewpoints.
  • Richard Mellon Scaife — Richard Mellon Scaife was an American billionaire and publisher, known for funding conservative causes and publications. His philanthropy significantly influenced the growth of conservative and, at times, Christian nationalist ideologies in American politics.
  • Jeff Sessions — Jeff Sessions, former U.S. Attorney General and Senator, is known for his conservative and often Christian-oriented political stance. His policies and public statements often resonate with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in the areas of immigration and religious liberty.
Jeff Sessions, by Midjourney
  • Francis Schaeffer — Francis Schaeffer was an influential evangelical theologian and philosopher, known for his writings on Christianity and culture. His work laid a foundation for the Christian right and indirectly influenced Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Phyllis Schlafly — Phyllis Schlafly was a conservative activist and author, known for her opposition to the feminist movement and her advocacy for conservative Christian values. She was a key figure in the rise of the Christian right, which intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Alan Sears — Alan Sears is an attorney and founder of the Alliance Defending Freedom, an organization known for its conservative Christian legal advocacy. His work often aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, especially in legal battles over religious freedom and traditional values.
  • Jay Sekulow — Jay Sekulow is Chief Counsel for the American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ), known for his legal advocacy on behalf of conservative Christian causes. His work frequently intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies in defending religious liberties and conservative values in the legal sphere.
  • W. Cleon Skousen — W. Cleon Skousen was an American conservative author and lecturer, known for his work on anti-communism and the Constitution. His writings have been influential in conservative and Christian nationalist circles, advocating for a conservative interpretation of American history and governance.
  • Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR) — A secretive, men-only Christian nationalist group in the US with close ties to the Claremont Institute and a membership roster predicated on wealth and power. The group’s ideology is tied to strains of white supremacy and government takeover.
  • SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN) — SonLife Broadcasting Network is a Christian television network run by evangelist Jimmy Swaggart. Its programming focuses on evangelical Christian content and promoting a conservative Christian worldview.
  • SonLife Radio Network — SonLife Radio Network, part of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, broadcasts Christian programming with a focus on evangelical teachings and music.
Jimmy Swaggart crying on national TV
  • Horatio Robinson Storer — Horatio Robinson Storer was a 19th-century physician known for his campaign against abortion and his contributions to the field of gynecology. His historical role intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies in terms of advocating for conservative Christian morals in medical ethics.
  • Southern Baptist Convention — The southern Baptists split with the northern Baptists in 1845 over the issue of slavery.
  • Southern Presbyterian Church — The Southern Presbyterian Church historically refers to Presbyterian denominations in the American South, known for their conservative theological views. Their historical and modern stances often align with Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing traditional Christian values.
  • Southern Strategy — The Southern Strategy was a Republican Party electoral strategy to increase political support among white voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans. While not directly a Christian nationalist strategy, it intersects with certain aspects of Christian nationalist politics in its appeal to traditional values and segregation.
  • Darla St. Martin — Darla St. Martin is a prominent figure in the pro-life movement, known for her leadership roles in the National Right to Life Committee. Her activism aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in advocating for anti-abortion policies based on conservative Christian ethics.
  • Stop ERA — Stop ERA was a political movement led by Phyllis Schlafly, aimed at opposing the Equal Rights Amendment. This movement was aligned with Christian nationalist ideologies, advocating for traditional gender roles and conservative Christian values.
  • Students for Life of America — Students for Life of America is a pro-life organization focused on mobilizing young people against abortion. Their activism often intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies, emphasizing the alignment of conservative Christian values with anti-abortion advocacy.
  • Susan B. Anthony List — The Susan B. Anthony List is a non-profit organization that seeks to reduce and ultimately end abortion in the U.S. by supporting pro-life politicians. Its mission aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in advocating for policies based on conservative Christian ethics.
  • Donnie Swaggart — Donnie Swaggart is an evangelist and pastor, part of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, known for his evangelical teachings.
  • Gabriel Swaggart — Gabriel Swaggart is a pastor and television host, part of the Swaggart family’s evangelical ministry. His work, like that of other family members, often aligns with conservative Christian values, occasionally intersecting with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Jimmy Swaggart — Jimmy Swaggart is a well-known Pentecostal evangelist and founder of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, including the SonLife Broadcasting Network. His ministry, marked by traditional evangelical teachings, sometimes aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in promoting conservative Christian values.
Jimmy Swaggart preaching and televangelizing up a storm, by Midjourney
  • Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC) — Jimmy Swaggart Bible College is an educational institution part of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, focused on training individuals for ministry work with an evangelical Christian perspective.
  • Jimmy Swaggart Telecast — The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast is a Christian television program led by evangelist Jimmy Swaggart, focusing on evangelical preaching and worship.
  • Bruce Taylor, Jeff Taylor, Steve Taylor, & Taylor Farms
  • Thomas Road Baptist Church — Thomas Road Baptist Church, founded by Jerry Falwell Sr., is a significant megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia, known for its evangelical Christian teachings. The church has historically been associated with the Christian right and Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • James Henley Thornwell — James Henley Thornwell was a 19th-century Presbyterian preacher and theologian, known for his conservative theological views and defense of slavery. His teachings have been cited in contexts related to Christian nationalist ideologies, especially in the historical context of the American South.
  • Robert Tilton — Robert Tilton is a televangelist known for his prosperity gospel teachings and controversial faith healing practices. His ministry is focused on “individual prosperity.”
  • Traditional Values Coalition — The Traditional Values Coalition (TVC) is a conservative Christian advocacy group that promotes policies aligned with traditional family values, often focusing on opposing LGBTQ+ rights, abortion, and secularism in public institutions. Critics argue that the TVC’s efforts to legislate morality according to its interpretation of Christian doctrine contribute to discrimination and the erosion of the separation between church and state​.
  • United States Council of Catholic Bishops — The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) is the episcopal conference of the Catholic Church in the United States, providing leadership and guidance on spiritual, moral, and social issues from a Catholic perspective. The organization often takes strong stances on policy issues such as abortion, religious freedom, and marriage, promoting a conservative agenda that critics argue sometimes aligns with Christian nationalist ideals and influences public policy to reflect religious doctrine.
  • “Values Buses” — An organizing tactic of the Family Research Council (FRC) to deliver “voter guides” to churches around the country.
  • Values Voters Summit — The Values Voters Summit is an annual political conference hosted by the Family Research Council, known for gathering conservative Christian activists and politicians. The summit aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, focusing on advancing conservative Christian values in politics.
  • Richard Viguerie — Richard Viguerie was a political figure known for pioneering direct mail fundraising for conservative causes. His work has significantly influenced the conservative movement, including aspects that align with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Russell Vought — Russell Vought, a hard-right Christian nationalist, has played a significant role in shaping policies and plans for a potential second Trump term. As the former director of the Office of Management and Budget and founder of the Center for Renewing America, Vought has been instrumental in developing Project 2025. This plan aims to dismantle the nonpartisan federal government and replace it with a strong president and loyalists who would enforce religious rule in the United States.
  • C. Peter Wagner — C. Peter Wagner (1930-2016) is often referred to as the “godfather” of Dominionism, a term describing a set of theological and political beliefs advocating for Christians to govern and influence all aspects of society, including politics, business, and culture. Wagner played a crucial role in shaping and promoting these ideas, especially through his leadership within the New Apostolic Reformation (NAR), a movement he helped to found.
  • Wagner Institute for Practical Ministry — The Wagner Institute for Practical Ministry, founded by the “godfather of Dominionism” C. Peter Wagner in 1998, is an international network of apostolic training centers focused on equipping Christian leaders for ministry. Unlike traditional seminaries, the institute emphasizes hands-on, practical application of spiritual teachings, aiming to activate and impart spiritual gifts to its students. The curriculum includes training in apostolic leadership, prophetic ministry, healing, and deliverance, with a strong focus on integrating Christian principles into various spheres of society, such as business, government, and media.
  • Wallbuilders — WallBuilders is an organization founded by David Barton that focuses on presenting America’s history from a Christian perspective, emphasizing the role of religion in the nation’s founding and development. It aims to influence contemporary policy and culture by promoting the idea that the United States was founded as a Christian nation and should return to these “roots.”
A big nasty border wall keeping people out, by Midjourney
  • Wall Street Prayer Watch — Wall Street Prayer Watch is a Christian organization that aims to promote prayer and spiritual guidance among financial professionals in New York City. Critics maintain that its activities often align with Christian nationalist goals, seeking to integrate religious practices and principles into the secular environment of the financial sector​.
  • Washington Watch — Daily radio talk show hosted by Tony Perkins, the president of the Family Research Council. Airing every weekday, the show provides a conservative Christian perspective on current events and political issues, particularly those affecting faith, family, and religious freedoms. Perkins frequently interviews members of Congress, prominent pro-family leaders, and other newsmakers, discussing topics such as government policies, cultural trends, and legislative developments that impact Christian values and communities. The show is broadcast on numerous radio stations across the United States and is also available on various streaming platforms.
  • The Watchmen on the Wall — Watchmen on the Wall is an initiative of the Family Research Council that equips pastors and church leaders to engage in political activism and promote biblical values in the public square. Critics argue that the initiative aligns with Christian nationalist goals, seeking to influence public policy and governance to reflect conservative Christian doctrines and principles.
  • Doug Wead — Doug Wead is a conservative commentator and author known for his involvement in presidential politics. His work, while primarily political, sometimes intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in his advocacy for conservative values.
  • Well Versed — Well Versed Ministry is an organization founded by Dr. Jim Garlow and Rosemary Schindler Garlow, aimed at bringing biblical principles of governance to government leaders. Established to influence public policy and decision-makers with Christian values, Well Versed operates primarily by organizing Bible studies and providing spiritual support to members of Congress, ambassadors at the United Nations, and other elected officials.
  • Paul Weyrich — Paul Weyrich was a conservative activist and commentator, co-founder of the Heritage Foundation and the Moral Majority. He played a key role in mobilizing the Christian right and influencing Christian nationalist ideologies within American politics.
  • Paula White — Paula White is a televangelist and pastor, known for her association with the prosperity gospel and her role as a spiritual advisor to former President Donald Trump. Her ministry, while primarily focused on individual prosperity and spiritual matters, occasionally intersects with Christian nationalist ideologies.
Paula White, spiritual advisor to Donald Trump, praying with his Cabinet in the White House while he looms over her lecherously, by Midjourney
  • Donald Wildmon — Donald Wildmon is the founder of the American Family Association, a group known for its conservative Christian advocacy. His work aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in promoting conservative Christian values in media and culture.
  • Farris Wilks — Farris Wilks is a businessman and conservative political donor, known for his support of Christian and conservative causes. His philanthropy often aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Dan Wilks — Dan Wilks, alongside his brother Farris, is a businessman and significant donor to conservative and Christian causes. His contributions have influenced the conservative political landscape, occasionally intersecting with Christian nationalist ideologies.
  • Ryan P. Williams — President of the Claremont Institute and a board member of the secretive Christian nationalist order seeking to occupy the US government, the Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR). He leads Claremont’s mission in the direction of what he calls a “cold civil war” designed to replace its currency democratically-elected leadership.
  • Stephen Wolfe — Stephen Wolfe is a scholar and author known for his writings on Christian nationalism. He is most notably the author of the book “The Case for Christian Nationalism,” which presents a detailed argument for integrating Christian values into national governance. Wolfe advocates for a model where a nation’s identity and policies are deeply rooted in Christian principles, suggesting that this approach would lead to a more moral and cohesive society.
  • William Wolfe — A former Trump administration official, Wolfe shares Russell Vought’s (of Project 2025) Christian nationalist views and has advocated for overturning same-sex marriage, ending abortion, and reducing access to contraceptives.
  • World Congress of Families — The World Congress of Families is an international organization that promotes conservative Christian values related to the family structure. It aligns with Christian nationalist ideologies in advocating for policies based on traditional Christian views of family and morality.
  • Scott Yenor — Claremont Institute official and Boise State University professor who is a member of the shadowy Society for American Renewal fraternal order of Christian nationalists.
  • Young America’s Foundation — Young America’s Foundation is a conservative youth organization known for promoting conservative ideas among young people. Its activities often intersect with Christian nationalist ideologies, particularly in advocating for conservative and traditional values in education and public life.
Young America's Foundation of future date rapists, by Midjourney

Learn more:

Christian nationalism terms

Christian Nationalism Dictionary

Christian nationalism books

Christian Nationalism Books

What is Dominionism?

Dominionism

3 GOP Cults: Christian Cult, Wealth Cult, White Cult

The GOP is 3 Cults in a Trenchcoat
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The concept of “prebunking” emerges as a proactive strategy in the fight against disinformation, an ever-present challenge in the digital era where information spreads at unprecedented speed and scale. In essence, prebunking involves the preemptive education of the public about the techniques and potential contents of disinformation campaigns before they encounter them. This method seeks not only to forewarn but also to forearm individuals, making them more resilient to the effects of misleading information.

Understanding disinformation

Disinformation, by definition, is false information that is deliberately spread with the intent to deceive or mislead. It’s a subset of misinformation, which encompasses all false information regardless of intent.

In our current “information age,” the rapid dissemination of information through social media, news outlets, and other digital platforms has amplified the reach and impact of disinformation campaigns. These campaigns can have various motives, including political manipulation, financial gain, or social disruption — and at times, all of the above; particularly in the case of information warfare.

The mechanism of prebunking

Prebunking works on the principle of “inoculation theory,” a concept borrowed from virology. Much like a vaccine introduces a weakened form of a virus to stimulate the immune system’s response to it, prebunking introduces individuals to a weakened form of an argument or disinformation tactic, thereby enabling them to recognize and resist such tactics in the future.

The process typically involves several key elements:

  • Exposure to Techniques: Educating people on the common techniques used in disinformation campaigns, such as emotional manipulation, conspiracy theories, fake experts, and misleading statistics.
  • Content Examples: Providing specific examples of disinformation can help individuals recognize similar patterns in future encounters.
  • Critical Thinking: Encouraging critical thinking and healthy skepticism, particularly regarding information sources and their motives. Helping people identify trustworthy media sources and discern credible sources in general.
  • Engagement: Interactive and engaging educational methods, such as games or interactive modules, have been found to be particularly effective in prebunking efforts.

The effectiveness of prebunking

Research into the effectiveness of prebunking is promising. Studies have shown that when individuals are forewarned about specific misleading strategies or the general prevalence of disinformation, they are better able to identify false information and less likely to be influenced by it. Prebunking can also increase resilience against disinformation across various subjects, from health misinformation such as the anti-vaccine movement to political propaganda.

However, the effectiveness of prebunking can vary based on several factors:

  • Timing: For prebunking to be most effective, it needs to occur before exposure to disinformation. Once false beliefs have taken root, they are much harder to correct — due to the backfire effect and other psychological, cognitive, and social factors.
  • Relevance: The prebunking content must be relevant to the audience’s experiences and the types of disinformation they are likely to encounter.
  • Repetition: Like many educational interventions, the effects of prebunking can diminish over time, suggesting that periodic refreshers may be necessary.

Challenges and considerations

While promising, prebunking is not a panacea for the disinformation dilemma. It faces several challenges:

  • Scalability: Effectively deploying prebunking campaigns at scale, particularly in a rapidly changing information environment, is difficult.
  • Targeting: Identifying and reaching the most vulnerable or targeted groups before they encounter disinformation requires sophisticated understanding and resources.
  • Adaptation by Disinformers: As prebunking strategies become more widespread, those who spread disinformation may adapt their tactics to circumvent these defenses.

Moreover, there is the ethical consideration of how to prebunk without inadvertently suppressing legitimate debate or dissent, ensuring that the fight against disinformation does not become a vector for censorship.

The role of technology and media

Given the digital nature of contemporary disinformation campaigns, technology companies and media organizations play a crucial role in prebunking efforts. Algorithms that prioritize transparency, the promotion of factual content, and the demotion of known disinformation sources can aid in prebunking. Media literacy campaigns, undertaken by educational institutions and NGOs, can also equip the public with the tools they need to navigate the information landscape critically.

Prebunking represents a proactive and promising approach to mitigating the effects of disinformation. By educating the public about the tactics used in disinformation campaigns and fostering critical engagement with media, it’s possible to build a more informed and resilient society.

However, the dynamic and complex nature of digital disinformation means that prebunking must be part of a broader strategy that includes technology solutions, regulatory measures, and ongoing research. As we navigate this challenge, the goal remains clear: to cultivate an information ecosystem where truth prevails, and public discourse thrives on accuracy and integrity.

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The Heartland Institute is a conservative and libertarian public policy think tank that was founded in 1984. Based in Arlington Heights, Illinois, its stated mission is to discover, develop, and promote free-market solutions to social and economic problems. However, it is perhaps most widely known for its controversial stance on climate change and its efforts to question the scientific consensus on the matter.

Early years and focus areas

Initially, the Heartland Institute focused on a broad range of issues, including education reform, health care, tax policy, and environmental regulation. It positioned itself as a proponent of free-market policies, arguing that such policies lead to more efficient and effective solutions than those proposed by government intervention. Later, it would begin to pivot towards advocacy around a singular issue: climate change denialism.

Climate change and environmental policy

The Heartland Institute’s engagement with climate change began to intensify in the late 1990s and early 2000s. During this period, the Institute increasingly questioned the prevailing scientific consensus on climate change, which holds that global warming is largely driven by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.

The Institute has been accused of being a key player in the campaign to spread doubt about climate change science — following the disinformation playbook first established by Big Tobacco in the 1950s to fight against public awareness of the lethal dangers of smoking. Critics argue that Heartland has worked to undermine public understanding and acceptance of global warming through various means, including:

  1. Publication of Skeptical Research and Reports: Heartland has funded and published reports and papers that challenge mainstream climate science. Notably, it has produced and promoted its own reports, such as the “NIPCC” (Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change) reports, which purport to review the same scientific evidence as the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) but often arrive at starkly different conclusions.
  2. Conferences and Workshops: The Institute has organized and hosted numerous conferences that have brought together climate change skeptics, scientists, and policymakers. These events have served as platforms for presenting and discussing views that are at odds with the mainstream scientific understanding of climate change.
  3. Public Relations and Media Campaigns: Through press releases, op-eds, and social media, the Heartland Institute has actively worked to disseminate its views on climate change to the wider public. It has also attempted to influence policymakers and educators, at times by distributing educational materials that question the consensus on global warming.

Funding and controversy

The funding sources of the Heartland Institute have been a subject of controversy. The organization has received financial support from various foundations, individuals, and corporations, including those with interests in fossil fuels — including the Koch network and the Joseph Coors Foundation. Critics argue that this funding may influence the Institute’s stance on climate change and its efforts to challenge the scientific consensus.

In 2012, the Heartland Institute faced significant backlash following the leak of internal documents that revealed details about its funding and strategy for challenging climate change science. These documents shed light on the Institute’s plans to develop a K-12 curriculum that would cast doubt on climate science, among other strategies aimed at influencing public opinion and education.

Lies, Incorporated

The Heartland Institute’s role in the climate change debate is a highly polarizing one. Proponents view it as a bastion of free speech and skepticism, vital for challenging what they (ironically) claim to see as the politicization of science. Critics, however, argue that its activities have contributed to misinformation, public confusion, and policy paralysis on one of the most pressing issues facing humanity — as well as playing a role in fomenting a broader shift towards science denialism in American culture.

By questioning the scientific consensus on climate change and promoting “alternative facts,” the Heartland Institute has played a significant role in shaping the public discourse on global warming. Its actions and the broader debate around climate science underscore the complex interplay between science, policy, and public opinion in addressing environmental challenges.

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The Tobacco Industry Research Committee (TIRC), which later became the Council for Tobacco Research (CTR), plays a pivotal role in the history of the tobacco industry, particularly in its efforts to counteract emerging scientific evidence linking smoking to serious health risks.

Established in December 1953, the TIRC was a key component of the tobacco industry’s coordinated response to increasing public concern and scientific research showing the adverse health effects of smoking. In the long run, the TIRC’s strategy would become a playbook for other industries that wanted to cast doubt on established science, from acid rain to the ozone layer to climate change denial — and beyond.

cigarettes in an ashtray, by Midjourney

Formation and purpose

The formation of the TIRC was a strategic move by major American tobacco companies in response to a series of scientific studies in the early 1950s that demonstrated a link between smoking and lung cancer. This period marked a significant turning point as the public began to question the safety of smoking. In 1952, Reader’s Digest, one of the most widely read magazines at the time, published an article titled “Cancer by the Carton,” which contributed to a sharp decline in cigarette sales.

Facing a potential crisis, executives from major tobacco companies convened at the Plaza Hotel in New York City. This meeting led to the creation of the TIRC. Officially, the council aimed to promote and fund scientific research into the effects of tobacco use. However, its unstated, primary goal was to cast doubt on the growing evidence linking smoking to health problems, thereby protecting the industry’s interests.

Big Tobacco executives gather at the Plaza Hotel in New York City in 1953 to kick off the science denialism craze to deny the adverse effects of smoking on health

Activities and strategies

The TIRC, and later the CTR, engaged in several key activities aimed at controlling the narrative around smoking and health:

  1. Funding Research: It provided grants for scientific studies in various fields, ostensibly to understand better whether and how smoking posed health risks. However, this research was biased in direction and often focused on alternative explanations for the causes of diseases like lung cancer, suggesting they could be due to factors other than smoking.
  2. Public Relations Campaigns: The TIRC orchestrated extensive public relations campaigns to reassure the public of the safety of smoking. It emphasized that there was no definitive proof linking smoking to cancer, suggesting that more research was needed. This strategy effectively used scientific uncertainty to maintain public trust in tobacco products.
  3. Influencing Scientific Discourse: The TIRC/CTR often attempted to influence the scientific discourse by publishing articles and reviews that questioned the link between smoking and disease. They also organized conferences and meetings where they could promote their narrative.
  4. Legal and Regulatory Influence: The organization worked to influence legislation and regulation related to tobacco use. By casting doubt on the science linking smoking to health risks, they aimed to forestall or weaken public health measures against smoking.

Impact and legacy

The legacy of the TIRC/CTR is marked by its success in delaying public acknowledgment of the health risks of smoking. For decades, the tobacco industry managed to sow doubt about the scientific consensus, affecting public health policies and contributing to continued tobacco use worldwide. This strategy of manufacturing doubt has been emulated by other industries facing similar challenges — leading to a wider cultural practice of science denialism.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, internal documents from the tobacco industry, including those related to the TIRC/CTR, were finally made public through litigation. These documents revealed the extent to which the industry was aware of the health risks associated with smoking, and its extensive, decades-long efforts to conceal this knowledge from the public.

Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement (1998)

The Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement of 1998, a landmark legal settlement between the major tobacco companies and 46 states, led to significant changes in how tobacco products are marketed and sold in the United States. It also resulted in the dissolution of the CTR and established the American Legacy Foundation (now known as the Truth Initiative), aimed at preventing tobacco use and encouraging cessation.

The TIRC/CTR’s history is a critical chapter in understanding how corporate interests can influence scientific research and public health policy. It serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of transparency, integrity in scientific research, and the potential consequences of allowing economic interests to overshadow public health concerns.

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Fundamentalism starves the mind. It reduces and narrows a universe of dazzlingly fascinating complexity available for infinite exploration — and deprives millions of people throughout the ages of the limitless gifts of curiosity.

The faux finality of fundamentalism is a kind of death wish — a closing off of pathways to possibility that are lost to those human minds forever. It’s a closing of the doors of perception and a welding shut of the very openings that give life its deepest meaning.

It is tragic — a truly heartbreaking process of grooming and indoctrination into a poisonous worldview; the trapping of untold minds in airless, sunless rooms of inert stagnation for an eternity. What’s worse — those claustrophobic minds aim to drag others in with them — perhaps to ease the unbearable loneliness of being surrounded only by similitude.

They are threatened by the appearance of others outside the totalist system that entraps them — and cannot countenance the evidence of roiling change that everywhere acts as a foil to their mass-induced delusions of finality. It gnaws at the edges of the certainty that functions to prop them up against a miraculous yet sometimes terrifying world of ultimate unknowability.

Continue reading Fundamentalism starves the mind
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SOTU 2024 Joe Biden Presidential address

Strong economic messages of the Keynesian buttressing of the middle class that is Bidenomics were everywhere in evidence at last night’s State of the Union address, Biden’s third since taking office in 2021. In SOTU 2024 he spoke about stabbing trickle-down economics in its gasping heart as a repeated failure to the American people. Instead of giving another $2 trillion tax cuts to billionaires, Biden wants to give back to the people who he says built America: the middle class.

The President delivered strong, sweeping language and vision reminiscent of LBJ’s Great Society and FDR‘s New Deal. He also delivered a heartwarming sense of unity and appeal to put down our bickering and get things done for the American people.

“We all come from somewhere — but we’re all Americans.”

This while lambasting the Republicans for scuttling the deal over the popular bipartisan immigration bill thanks to 11th hour interference from TFG (“my predecessor” as JRB called him). “This bill would save lives!” He is really effective at calling out the GOP‘s hypocrisy on border security with this delivery.

“We can fight about the border or we can fix the border. Send me a bill!”

He is taking full advantage of being the incumbent candidate here. He has the power and the track record to do all these things he is promising, and he’s telling the exact truth about the Republican obstructionism preventing the American people from having their government work for them.

SOTU 2024 Joe Biden fiery speech with Kamala Harris and Mike Johnson in the background behind him

I love that he calls out Trump in this speech, without naming names — almost a kind of Voldemort effect. He who must not be named — because giving him the dignity even of a name is more than he deserves.

He says that Trump and his cabal of anti-democratic political operatives have ancient ideas (hate, revenge, reactionary, etc.) — and that you can’t lead America with ancient ideas. In America, we look towards the future — relentlessly. Americans wants a president who will protect their rights — not take them away.

“I see a future… for all Americans!” he ends with, in a segment reminiscent of the great Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech, with its clear vision of power and authority flowing from what is morally right and just, instead of what is corrupt and cronyish. It gave me hope for the future — that Americans will make the right choice, as we seem to have done under pressure, throughout our history. 🀞🏽

Continue reading Biden SOTU 2024: Success stories and big policy ideas
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The story of The Illuminati begins in 1776 with the formation of the Bavarian Illuminati, a secret society founded by Adam Weishaupt, a German law professor. Weishaupt, disillusioned with the limitations of conventional education and the power wielded by the church, sought to create an organization that promoted Enlightenment ideals: reason, secularism, and rationality.

The Illuminati initially attracted intellectuals, freethinkers, and progressive politicians. They discussed controversial ideas like secularism, civil rights, and rational thought, which were radical during a period dominated by religious and monarchical power.

Spread and suppression

The society grew quickly but covertly. By the 1780s, it had infiltrated various influential circles, including Masonic lodges. However, their secrecy and progressive ideas alarmed conservative and religious authorities.

The Illuminati gazing towards the Eye of Providence, by Midjourney

In 1785, Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, banned all secret societies, including the Illuminati, and vigorously pursued its members. This suppression led to the disbandment and scattering of its adherents.

Conspiracy theories begin

Despite its dissolution, the Illuminati’s legacy persisted, giving birth to numerous conspiracy theories. The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a significant catalyst.

Some conservative European authors speculated that the Illuminati survived and masterminded the revolution as part of a grand scheme to overthrow monarchies and religions across Europe. In this way, The Illuminati were already outliving themselves in the mind of the public.

The 19th and 20th centuries: Spread of theories

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the myth of the Illuminati persisted. Anti-Semitic propagandists in the 19th century, including the authors of the notorious “Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” falsely claimed that Jews and Freemasons (often conflated with the Illuminati) were plotting global domination. This pernicious myth found a receptive audience in various parts of the world, notably influencing Adolf Hitler and the Nazi ideology.

The Modern Era

In the 20th century, especially during the Cold War, conspiracy theories about the Illuminati evolved and spread. They were often used as political tools to instigate fear about perceived enemies, both internal and external.

In recent decades, the Illuminati has been a staple in popular culture, appearing in books, movies, and music. This omnipresence in media has played a significant role in keeping the conspiracy theory alive in the public imagination.

Psychological and sociological perspectives

The staying power of the Illuminati conspiracy theory can be attributed to various psychological and sociological factors:

  1. Human Nature and Mystery: Humans are naturally drawn to mystery and the allure of secret societies. The idea of a hidden group controlling world events is both frightening and fascinating.
  2. Simplification of Complex Issues: Conspiracy theories provide simple explanations for complex world events. Blaming a single, shadowy organization for significant historical and current events is easier than understanding the multifaceted nature of these occurrences.
  3. Powerlessness and Control: In times of uncertainty or powerlessness, conspiracy theories offer a sense of understanding and control. Believing in the Illuminati can make the world seem more predictable and manageable.
  4. Political and Ideological Utility: Various groups have used the Illuminati conspiracy theory to advance their political or ideological agendas, often as a tool to discredit opponents or rally support against a perceived common enemy.

The Illuminati conspiracy theory is a fascinating case study in the power of ideas and myths. From its inception as a small secret society advocating Enlightenment ideals to its current status as a symbol of covert global domination, the Illuminati myth reflects deeper human needs and fears.

Its stickiness highlights our enduring fascination with the unknown and our propensity to find patterns and meanings, sometimes where none exist. As society continues to evolve, the myth of the Illuminati is likely to persist, morphing to fit the anxieties and questions of each new generation.

Books about the Illuminati

Books about conspiracy theories

Conspiracy Theory Books

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Science denialism has a complex and multifaceted history, notably marked by a significant event in 1953 that set a precedent for the tactics of disinformation widely observed in various spheres today, including politics.

The 1953 meeting and the birth of the disinformation playbook

The origins of modern science denial can be traced back to a pivotal meeting in December 1953, involving the heads of the four largest American tobacco companies. This meeting was a response to emerging scientific research linking smoking to lung cancer — a serious existenstial threat to their business model.

Concerned about the potential impact on their business, these industry leaders collaborated with a public relations firm, Hill & Knowlton, to craft a strategy. This strategy was designed not only to dispute the growing evidence about the health risks of smoking, but also to manipulate public perception by creating doubt about the science itself. They created the Tobacco Industry Research Committee (TIRC) as an organization to cast doubt on the established science, and prevent the public from knowing about the lethal dangers of smoking.

And it worked — for over 40 years. The public never formed a consensus on the lethality and addictiveness of nicotine until well into the 1990s, when the jig was finally up and Big Tobacco had to pay a record-breaking $200 billion settlement over their 4 decades of mercilessly lying to the American people following the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) of 1998.

smoking and the disinformation campaign of Big Tobacco leading to science denialism, by Midjourney

Strategies of the disinformation playbook

This approach laid the groundwork for what is often referred to as the “disinformation playbook.” The key elements of this playbook include creating doubt about scientific consensus, funding research that could contradict or cloud scientific understanding, using think tanks or other organizations to promote these alternative narratives, and influencing media and public opinion to maintain policy and regulatory environments favorable to their interests — whether profit, power, or both.

Over the next 7 decades — up to the present day — this disinformation playbook has been used by powerful special interests to cast doubt, despite scientific consensus, on acid rain, depletion of the ozone layer, the viability of Ronald Reagan‘s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), and perhaps most notably: the man-made causes of climate change.

Adoption and adaptation in various industries

The tobacco industry’s tactics were alarmingly successful for decades, delaying effective regulation and public awareness of smoking’s health risks. These strategies were later adopted and adapted by various industries and groups facing similar scientific challenges to their products or ideologies. For instance, the fossil fuel industry used similar tactics to cast doubt on global warming — leading to the phenomenon of climate change denialism. Chemical manufacturers have disputed science on the harmful effects of certain chemicals like DDT and BPA.

What began as a PR exercise by Big Tobacco to preserve their fantastic profits once science discovered the deleterious health effects of smoking eventually evolved into a strategy of fomenting science denialism more broadly. Why discredit one single finding of the scientific community when you could cast doubt on the entire process of science itself — as a way of future-proofing any government regulation that might curtail your business interests?

Science denial in modern politics

In recent years, the tactics of science denial have become increasingly prevalent in politics. Political actors, often influenced by corporate interests or ideological agendas, have employed these strategies to challenge scientific findings that are politically inconvenient — despite strong and often overwhelming evidence. This is evident in manufactured “debates” on climate change, vaccine safety, and COVID-19, where scientific consensus is often contested not based on new scientific evidence but through disinformation strategies aimed at sowing doubt and confusion.

The role of digital media and politicization

The rise of social media has accelerated the spread of science denial. The digital landscape allows for rapid dissemination of misinformation and the formation of echo chambers, where groups can reinforce shared beliefs or skepticism, often insulated from corrective or opposing information. Additionally, the politicization of science, where scientific findings are viewed through the lens of political allegiance rather than objective evidence, has further entrenched science denial in modern discourse — as just one aspect of the seeming politicization of absolutely everything in modern life and culture.

Strategies for combatting science denial

The ongoing impact of science denial is profound. It undermines public understanding of science, hampers informed decision-making, and delays action on critical issues like climate change, public health, and environmental protection. The spread of misinformation about vaccines, for instance, has led to a decrease in vaccination rates and a resurgence of diseases like measles.

scientific literacy, by Midjourney

To combat science denial, experts suggest several strategies. Promoting scientific literacy and critical thinking skills among the general public is crucial. This involves not just understanding scientific facts, but also developing an understanding of the scientific method and how scientific knowledge is developed and validated. Engaging in open, transparent communication about science, including the discussion of uncertainties and limitations of current knowledge, can also help build public trust in science.

Science denial, rooted in the strategies developed by the tobacco industry in the 1950s, has evolved into a significant challenge in contemporary society, impacting not just public health and environmental policy but also the very nature of public discourse and trust in science. Addressing this issue requires a multifaceted approach, including education, transparent communication, and collaborative efforts to uphold the integrity of scientific information.

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Climate Change Denial: From Big Tobacco Tactics to Today’s Global Challenge

In the complex narrative of global climate change, one pervasive thread is the phenomenon of climate change denial. This denial isn’t just a refusal to accept the scientific findings around climate change; it is a systematic effort to discredit and cast doubt on environmental realities and the need for urgent action.

Remarkably, the roots of this denial can be traced back to the strategies used by the tobacco industry in the mid-20th century to obfuscate the link between smoking and lung cancer. This companies conspired to create a disinformation campaign against the growing scientific consensus on the manmade nature of climate change, to cast doubt about the link between the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of the planet’s natural ecosystems — and they succeeded, for over half a century, beginning in 1953.

climate change and its denial, by Midjourney

Origins in big tobacco’s playbook

The origins of climate change denial lie in a well-oiled, public relations machine initially designed by the tobacco industry. When scientific studies began linking smoking to lung cancer in the 1950s, tobacco companies launched an extensive campaign to challenge these findings. Their strategy was not to disprove the science outright but to sow seeds of doubt, suggesting that the research was not conclusive and that more studies were needed. This strategy of manufacturing doubt proved effective in delaying regulatory and public action against tobacco products, for more than 5 decades.

Adoption by climate change deniers

This playbook was later adopted by those seeking to undermine climate science. In the late 20th century, as scientific consensus grew around the human impact on global warming, industries and political groups with a vested interest in maintaining the status quo began to employ similar tactics around lying at scale. They funded research to challenge or undermine climate science, supported think tanks and lobbyists to influence public opinion and policy, and used media outlets to spread a narrative of uncertainty and skepticism.

Political consequences

The political consequences of climate change denial have been profound. In the United States and other countries, it has polarized the political debate over environmental policy, turning what is fundamentally a scientific issue into a partisan one. This politicization has hindered comprehensive national and global policies to combat climate change, as legislative efforts are often stalled by ideological conflicts.

a burning forest of climate change, by Midjourney

Denial campaigns have also influenced public opinion, creating a significant segment of the population that is skeptical of climate science years after overwhelming scientific consensus has been reached, which further complicates efforts to implement wide-ranging environmental reforms.

Current stakes and global impact

Today, the stakes of climate change denial could not be higher. As the world faces increasingly severe consequences of global warming β€” including extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and disruptions to ecosystems β€” the need for decisive action becomes more urgent. Yet, climate change denial continues to impede progress. By casting doubt on scientific consensus, it hampers efforts to build the broad public support necessary for bold environmental policies that may help thwart or mitigate some of the worst disasters.

Moreover, climate change denial poses a significant risk to developing countries, which are often the most vulnerable to climate impacts but the least equipped to adapt. Denialism in wealthier nations can lead to a lack of global cooperation and support needed to address these challenges comprehensively.

Moving forward: acknowledging the science and embracing action

To effectively combat climate change, it is crucial to recognize the roots and ramifications of climate change denial. Understanding its origins in the Big Tobacco disinformation strategy helps demystify the tactics used to undermine environmental science. It’s equally important to acknowledge the role of political and economic interests in perpetuating this denial — oil tycoon Charles Koch alone spends almost $1 billion per election cycle, heavily to climate deniers.

A climate change desert, by Midjourney

However, there is a growing global movement acknowledging the reality of climate change and the need for urgent action. From international agreements like the Paris Accord to grassroots activism pushing for change, there is a mounting push against the tide of denial.

Climate change denial, with its roots in the Big Tobacco playbook, poses a significant obstacle to global efforts to address environmental challenges. Its political ramifications have stalled critical policy initiatives, and its ongoing impact threatens global cooperation. As we face the increasing urgency of climate change, acknowledging and countering this denial is crucial for paving the way towards a more sustainable and resilient future.

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The Moon landing hoax conspiracy theory posits that the United States faked the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969 as well as the subsequent Apollo missions. Despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, proponents of this theory claim that NASA, with the possible assistance of other organizations, orchestrated a deception to win the Space Race against the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Apollo moon landing hoax conspiracy theory, by Midjourney

Origin and Spread of the Theory

The theory took root in the early 1970s, gaining traction with the book “We Never Went to the Moon: America’s Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle” by Bill Kaysing, published in 1974. Kaysing, who had been a technical writer for a company that helped build the Saturn V rocket, argued that the technology to land on the Moon did not exist and that the Apollo missions were staged on Earth.

In the following decades, the conspiracy theory was perpetuated through books, documentaries, and internet forums. Notably, the 2001 Fox television special “Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?” brought renewed attention to these claims, featuring interviews with experts and conspiracy theorists.

Saturn V rocket lineup, by Midjourney

Main claims of the theory

  1. Photographic and video anomalies: Conspiracy theorists point to perceived inconsistencies in the Apollo mission photographs and videos. These include arguments about shadows and lighting, the absence of stars in lunar sky photos, and the appearance of the American flag, which seemed to flutter as if in the wind.
  2. Technical and scientific implausibility: Skeptics argue that the technology of the 1960s was not advanced enough for a Moon landing. They claim that the Van Allen radiation belts surrounding Earth would have been lethal to astronauts, and that the lunar module could not have functioned as claimed.
  3. Political motives: At the height of the Cold War, the United States was locked in a technological and ideological battle with the Soviet Union. Landing on the Moon would assert American dominance in space technology. Conspiracy theorists suggest that this was a compelling motive for the U.S. government to fabricate the Moon landings.

Counterarguments and evidence against the theory

The Moon landing conspiracy theory has been extensively debunked by scientists, astronauts, and historians. Key counterarguments include:

  1. Technical rebuttals: Scientific explanations have been provided for each of the supposed anomalies in the Apollo mission photos and videos. For example, the absence of stars is attributed to the camera’s exposure settings, and the peculiar behavior of the flag is explained by the way it was constructed and moved.
  2. Third-party evidence: Independent tracking of the Apollo missions by several countries and the presence of reflectors on the Moon’s surface, placed there during the Apollo missions and still used for laser ranging experiments, provide evidence of the landings.
  3. Feasibility of a hoax: The scale of the alleged deception would have required the involvement and silence of thousands of people, including NASA employees and contractors, which experts argue is highly improbable. Furthermore, the Soviet Union, America’s primary competitor in space, never contested the Moon landings, which they likely would have if there were any evidence of a hoax.
Moon landing probe by Midjourney

Cultural Impact

The Moon landing conspiracy theory is often cited as an example of modern pseudoscience and the influence of misinformation. It reflects a broader public skepticism towards government and scientific authorities, amplified in the digital age by the internet and social media. The persistence of this theory highlights the challenges of combating false information and the importance of critical thinking and media literacy.

Conclusion

While the Moon landing hoax conspiracy theory continues to have adherents, it is overwhelmingly dismissed by the scientific community and regarded as a case study in conspiracy thinking. The Apollo Moon landings remain one of humanity’s most significant technological achievements, backed by a wealth of evidence and scientific consensus. The theory, however, serves as a reminder of the ongoing need to educate the public about scientific methodology and the evaluation of evidence.

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The Flat Earth conspiracy theory, which posits that the Earth is flat rather than spherical, is a fascinating example of how ancient beliefs can resurface and influence modern thinking. This theory challenges the fundamental scientific understanding of the Earth’s shape, a concept that has been well-established since the time of the ancient Greeks and further solidified by centuries of astronomical and physical observations.

Flat earth conspiracy theory, by Midjourney

Origin and Historical Context

The idea of a flat Earth dates back to ancient civilizations, where various cultures had differing perceptions of the Earth’s shape, often influenced by mythology and religious beliefs. The spherical nature of the Earth was first proposed by ancient Greek philosophers like Pythagoras and later substantiated by Aristotle and Eratosthenes. Despite these early scientific assertions, flat Earth beliefs persisted in various cultures.

Resurgence in Modern Times

The modern Flat Earth theory began to resurface in the 19th century. Notable figures like English writer Samuel Rowbotham, based on his interpretation of biblical passages, argued for a flat, disc-shaped Earth. His work, “Zetetic Astronomy,” became a cornerstone of modern Flat Earth theory.

Contemporary Supporters

Today, the Flat Earth theory is supported by a small but vocal minority. This group includes individuals from various backgrounds, from conspiracy theorists to those skeptical of mainstream science. Organizations like The Flat Earth Society, founded in the mid-20th century, and numerous internet forums and social media groups, have been instrumental in spreading these beliefs in the digital age.

The Flat Earth Society's annual meeting poster, as imagined by Midjourney

Reasons for Belief

The reasons why people believe in the Flat Earth theory are complex and varied. Some are driven by religious or scriptural interpretations, while others are skeptical of scientific institutions and mainstream media. The rise of social media has also played a significant role, providing a platform for the spread of various conspiracy theories, including the Flat Earth belief. The psychological appeal of being part of a group that “knows the truth” can also be a strong motivator.

Impact on Disinformation and Science Denial

The Flat Earth theory’s resurgence is emblematic of a broader trend in science denial and disinformation in modern culture. It represents a distrust in scientific expertise and institutions, a phenomenon that has been exacerbated by the rise of the internet and social media. This environment allows for the rapid spread of misinformation, where unverified claims can gain traction among communities that are distrustful of conventional sources of knowledge.

Societal and Cultural Implications

The belief in Flat Earth theory has broader implications for how society perceives and engages with scientific information. It highlights the challenges in combating misinformation and the importance of scientific literacy. The proliferation of such beliefs can undermine public understanding of science, with potential impacts on public policy and education.

the flat earth, as imagined by Midjourney

Conclusion

The Flat Earth conspiracy theory, though widely disproven and rejected by the scientific community, persists as a notable example of how ancient beliefs can be revived and propagated in the modern world. Its existence and persistence underscore the ongoing challenges in promoting scientific literacy and combating misinformation in an increasingly digital world.

In understanding the Flat Earth phenomenon, it’s essential to consider the broader context of why and how such theories gain traction. This involves examining the roles of media, culture, psychology, and education in shaping public understanding of science. Addressing these underlying factors is crucial in mitigating the spread of scientific misinformation and fostering a more informed and rational public discourse.

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republican vs. democrat cage match boxing ring

Buckle up, we’re in for a wild ride. Many of the serious scholars of political history and authoritarian regimes are sounding the alarm bells that, although it is a very very good thing that we got the Trump crime family out of the Oval Office, it is still a very very bad thing for America to have so rapidly tilted towards authoritarianism. How did we get here?! How has hyper partisanship escalated to the point of an attempted coup by 126 sitting Republican House Representatives? How has political polarization gotten this bad?

These are some of the resources that have helped me continue grappling with that question, and with the rapidly shifting landscape of information warfare. How can we understand this era of polarization, this age of tribalism? This outline is a work in progress, and I’m planning to keep adding to this list as the tape keeps rolling.

Right-Wing Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is both a personality type and a form of government — it operates at both the interpersonal and the societal level. The words authoritarian and fascist are often used interchangeably, but fascism is a more specific type of authoritarianism, and far more historically recent.

America has had flavors of authoritarianism since its founding, and when fascism came along the right-wing authoritarians ate it up — and deeply wanted the United States to be a part of it. Only after they became social pariahs did they change position to support American involvement in World War II — and some persisted even after the attack of Pearl Harbor.

With Project 2025, Trump now openly threatens fascism on America — and sadly, some are eager for it. The psychology behind both authoritarian leaders and followers is fascinating, overlooked, and misunderstood.

Scholars of authoritarianism

  • Hannah Arendt — The Origins of Totalitarianism
  • Bob Altemeyer — The Authoritarians
  • Derrida — the logic of the unconscious; performativity in the act of lying
  • ketman — Ketman is the psychological concept of concealing one’s true aims, akin to doublethink in Orwell’s 1984, that served as a central theme to Polish dissident CzesΕ‚aw MiΕ‚osz‘s book The Captive Mind about intellectual life under totalitarianism during the Communist post-WWII occupation.
  • Erich Fromm — coined the term “malignant narcissism” to describe the psychological character of the Nazis. He also wrote extensively about the mindset of the authoritarian follower in his seminal work, Escape from Freedom.
  • Eric Hoffer — his book The True Believers explores the mind of the authoritarian follower, and the appeal of losing oneself in a totalist movement
  • Fascism — elevation of the id as the source of truth; enthusiasm for political violence
  • Tyrants and dictators
  • John Dean — 3 types of authoritarian personality:
    • social dominators
    • authoritarian followers
    • double highs — social dominators who can “switch” to become followers in certain circumstances
  • Loyalty; hero worship
    • Freud = deeply distrustful of hero worship and worried that it indulged people’s needs for vertical authority. He found the archetype of the authoritarian primal father very troubling.
  • Ayn Rand
    • The Fountainhead (1943)
    • Atlas Shrugged (1957)
    • Objectivism ideology
  • Greatness Thinking; heroic individualism
  • Nietszche — will to power; the Uberman
  • Richard Hofstadter — The Paranoid Style
  • George Lakoff — moral framing; strict father morality
  • Neil Postman — Entertaining Ourselves to Death
  • Anti-Intellectualism
  • Can be disguised as hyper-rationalism (Communism)
  • More authoritarianism books
Continue reading Hyper Partisanship: How to understand American political polarization
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The Stanford Prison Experiment is a seminal study in the field of social psychology, offering profound insights into the dynamics of power, authority, and human behavior. Conducted in 1971 by psychologist Philip Zimbardo, the experiment aimed to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power and authority within a simulated prison environment. Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment set the stage for deeper explorations of the ways in which individualist doctrines of western nations tend to overweight the role of the individual (dispensational attribution) while underweighting the role in the situation and social milieu of the setting.

The Experiment Setup

Zimbardo and his team transformed the basement of Stanford University’s psychology building into a mock prison. Participants, who were college students, were randomly assigned roles as either “guards” or “prisoners.” The guards were given uniforms, sunglasses to prevent eye contact, and batons, while the prisoners were stripped of personal identity, referred to by numbers, and subjected to various forms of psychological manipulation and humiliation designed to dehumanize them in the eyes of their faux captors.

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment, by Midjourney

The Unfolding

The Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment was initially planned to last two weeks but had to be terminated after just six days due to the extreme and disturbing behavior exhibited by the participants. The guards became increasingly sadistic, employing psychological torture techniques, and the prisoners showed signs of extreme stress, depression, and helplessness. The environment became so toxic that some prisoners had to be released early due to emotional breakdowns.

Ethical Concerns

The study has been widely criticized for its ethical shortcomings. Zimbardo himself acted as the “prison superintendent,” and his failure to intervene has been seen as a significant ethical lapse (he shares this sentiment, and has been vocal about examining his own role in the profoundly disturbing results of his experiment). The lack of informed consent and the emotional and psychological harm caused to the participants have also been points of contention in the academic community.

Before this study, though, I think it was counterintuitive to assume that otherwise decent, law-abiding good people could be turned into snarling sadists so quickly, in the right circumstances. And the reality of that truth disturbs us and the field of social psychology to this day.

Social Psychological Learnings

Despite its ethical issues, the Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment offers invaluable insights into human behavior and social psychology:

  • Deindividuation: The guards’ uniforms and sunglasses served to deindividuate them, making it easier for them to engage in cruel behavior without feeling personally responsible.
  • Social Roles and Conformity: Both guards and prisoners conformed to their assigned roles to a disturbing extent, highlighting the power of social roles in shaping behavior.
conformity, by Midjourney
  • Authority and Obedience: The experiment showed how ordinary people could commit atrocious acts when they perceive themselves to be following authoritative commands.
  • Situational vs. Dispositional Factors: The study emphasized the influence of situational factors over dispositional ones in determining behavior. It argued that the environment could significantly impact how individuals act, as opposed to inherent personality traits.
  • Ethical Considerations in Research: The study serves as a cautionary tale for ethical considerations in psychological experiments, leading to stricter guidelines and review boards for research involving human subjects.

Implications and Legacy

The Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment has had a lasting impact on psychology, ethics, and our understanding of human behavior. It has been cited in various contexts, from understanding the abuses at Abu Ghraib prison to corporate misconduct a la Enron, et al. While the study’s ethical lapses have led to ongoing debates, its findings remain a crucial part of social psychology curricula and continue to inform our understanding of the human psyche.

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment serves as both a revealing exploration of the dark corners of human behavior and a cautionary tale for ethical conduct in scientific research. It provides a complex, multifaceted look into the social psychological mechanisms that can lead ordinary people to commit extraordinary acts of cruelty or submission.

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