conspiracy theories

November 12, 2024

Disinformation Books

disinformation illustrated by midjourney

In today’s digital landscape, disinformation has become an ever-present challenge, influencing everything from public opinion to personal beliefs. Understanding and combating disinformation isn’t just a task for media professionals; it’s a crucial skill for anyone navigating the vast array of information and misinformation in our interconnected world.

This curated list of books offers invaluable insights into the mechanisms of disinformation and the tools we can use to think critically, fact-check effectively, and enhance our media literacy. With perspectives spanning neuroscience, history, and media studies, these books dive deep into the factors that make disinformation so potent—and what we can do to counter it. Whether you’re a publishing or media professional looking to stay informed or a member of the general public eager to sharpen your information literacy skills, this selection has something for everyone interested in the truth amidst a world of half-truths and fabrications.

Active Measures: The Secret History of Disinformation and Political Warfare — Thomas Rid
This Is Not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality — Peter Pomerantsev
You Are Being Lied To: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths — Edited by Russ Kick
Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics — Yochai Benkler, Robert Faris, and Hal Roberts
LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media — P.W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking
The Misinformation Age: How False Beliefs Spread — Cailin O’Connor and James Owen Weatherall
Fake News: Understanding Media and Misinformation in the Digital Age — Edited by Melissa Zimdars and Kembrew McLeod
Information Wars: How We Lost the Global Battle Against Disinformation and What We Can Do About It — Richard Stengel
Antisocial: Online Extremists, Techno-Utopians, and the Hijacking of the American Conversation — Andrew Marantz
Weaponized Lies: How to Think Critically in the Post-Truth Era — Daniel J. Levitin
The Reality Game: How the Next Wave of Technology Will Break the Truth — Samuel Woolley
Lie Machines: How to Save Democracy from Troll Armies, Deceitful Robots, Junk News Operations, and Political Operatives — Philip N. Howard

Disinformation book summaries

Active Measures: The Secret History of Disinformation and Political Warfare

by Thomas Rid

The book provides a comprehensive historical account of disinformation campaigns, tracing their evolution from the early 20th century to the present day. Rid explores how intelligence agencies, governments, and other actors have used “active measures” to manipulate public opinion and influence political outcomes. The author examines key case studies, including Cold War operations and modern digital disinformation campaigns, offering insights into the tactics and strategies employed in information warfare.

This Is Not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality

by Peter Pomerantsev

Pomerantsev’s book explores the global landscape of information manipulation, drawing on personal experiences and interviews with key figures in the field. The author examines how various actors, from authoritarian regimes to populist movements, exploit modern communication technologies to shape narratives and influence public opinion. The book offers insights into the challenges facing democracy and truth in the digital age.

You Are Being Lied To: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths

by Russ Kick (Editor)

This collection of essays challenges conventional narratives and exposes various forms of misinformation across different domains. The book covers a wide range of topics, from media manipulation to historical inaccuracies and cultural misconceptions. It aims to encourage critical thinking and skepticism towards information presented by governments, media, corporations, and other institutions.

Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics

by Yochai Benkler, Robert Faris, and Hal Roberts

This comprehensive study analyzes media coverage of American presidential politics from 2015 to 2018. The authors argue that the right-wing media ecosystem operates fundamentally differently from the rest of the media environment, creating a propaganda feedback loop. The book examines how this dynamic has marginalized center-right media, radicalized the right-wing ecosystem, and made it susceptible to propaganda efforts.

LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media

by P.W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking

This book examines how social media has become a new battlefield for information warfare. The authors explore how various actors, including governments, terrorists, and activists, use social media platforms to shape public opinion, spread propaganda, and influence real-world events. The book offers insights into the strategies and tactics employed in this new form of conflict and discusses the implications for society and warfare.

The Misinformation Age: How False Beliefs Spread

by Cailin O’Connor and James Owen Weatherall

“The Misinformation Age” explores the social and psychological factors that contribute to the spread of false beliefs. The authors use case studies and scientific research to explain how misinformation propagates through social networks and why it can be so persistent. They examine the role of cognitive biases, social dynamics, and information ecosystems in shaping our beliefs and discuss potential strategies for combating the spread of false information.

Fake News: Understanding Media and Misinformation in the Digital Age

by Melissa Zimdars and Kembrew McLeod (Editors)

This collection of essays from various experts examines the phenomenon of “fake news” from multiple perspectives. The book covers topics such as the history of misinformation, the role of social media in spreading false narratives, and the challenges of fact-checking in the digital age. It offers insights into the complex landscape of modern media and provides strategies for navigating an information environment rife with misinformation.

Information Wars: How We Lost the Global Battle Against Disinformation and What We Can Do About It

by Richard Stengel

Drawing from his experience as Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, Stengel provides an insider’s account of the U.S. government’s efforts to combat disinformation. The book examines the challenges faced in countering propaganda from state actors like Russia and non-state actors like ISIS. Stengel offers insights into the nature of modern information warfare and proposes strategies for addressing the threat of disinformation.

Antisocial: Online Extremists, Techno-Utopians, and the Hijacking of the American Conversation

by Andrew Marantz

Marantz’s book provides an in-depth look at the individuals and groups behind the rise of online extremism and disinformation in America. Through extensive interviews and firsthand accounts, the author explores how fringe ideas have moved into the mainstream, facilitated by social media platforms and tech industry dynamics. The book offers insights into the complex interplay between technology, media, and politics in shaping public discourse.

Weaponized Lies: How to Think Critically in the Post-Truth Era

by Daniel J. Levitin

This book serves as a practical guide for navigating the complex information landscape of the “post-truth” era. Levitin provides tools and strategies for critical thinking, teaching readers how to evaluate claims, spot logical fallacies, and interpret statistics. The book aims to empower individuals to become more discerning consumers of information and to resist manipulation through misinformation and deceptive rhetoric.

The Reality Game: How the Next Wave of Technology Will Break the Truth

by Samuel Woolley

This book looks ahead to emerging technologies and their potential impact on the spread of disinformation. Woolley examines how artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and other advanced technologies might be used to create and disseminate even more convincing false narratives. The author also explores potential countermeasures and the role of policy in addressing these future challenges.

Lie Machines: How to Save Democracy from Troll Armies, Deceitful Robots, Junk News Operations, and Political Operatives

by Philip N. Howard

Howard’s book explores the world of computational propaganda, examining how social media platforms, artificial intelligence, and big data are being used to manipulate public opinion. The author investigates the actors behind disinformation campaigns, from state-sponsored trolls to political consultants, and discusses the implications for democracy. The book also offers potential solutions for combating these “lie machines” and preserving democratic discourse.

October 24, 2024

Does Trump support Project 2025?

The Former Guy has been continuously proclaiming to know nothing about Project 2025, the plan whose authors include 70% current and former Trump officials. In that he doth protest too much — does Trump support Project 2025? You bet your bippy he does!

What is Project 2025? Think of it as a vast plan, close to the former president, to feverishly establish Christofascism in America starting with Day 1 of a second Trump presidency. It is a 920-page document, and 1000-employee project, to “supercharge” another Trump term with an infusion of Christian nationalism.

More than 100 Christian nationalist organizations and groups are involved in drafting the blueprint for Trump’s next term, should that horrorscape come to pass. One core problem they have, however, is the extreme unpopularity of their ideas. Most Americans are recoiling from the draconian measures Project 2025 wishes to bestow upon the nation, unasked for and unwanted — including banning abortion nationwide, restricting IVF, defunding education, pulling out of NATO, etc.

Who is behind Project 2025?

Project 2025 is so toxic in fact that Donald Trump tried to disavow it on Truth Social:

Trump disavows Project 2025 on his social network, Truth Social

But despite his pathetic attempt to disclaim knowledge about Project 2025, Trump’s current and former staff make up the majority of the group’s architects. Trump’s name appears 312 times in their document. It’s simply not credible that the GOP presumptive nominee is unaware of his loudest allies and advocates — and even if you take the known liar at his word, it constitutes malpractice for a political candidate to be so uninformed.

So allegedly, Donald Trump doesn’t know anyone behind Project 2025. Let’s have a look at the amazing Venn Diagram between Trump officials and Project 2025, shall we?

Kevin Roberts and Trump on a plane

Heritage Foundation president and leader of the organization behind Project 2025, Kevin Roberts, grins with Trump on a private plane in 2022, on the way to a Heritage conference in which Trump gave a keynote address about the project and its policy proposals.

In April 2024 Roberts told the Washington Post first hand that “I personally have talked to President Trump about Project 2025.” Apparently then, at least one of the two men is lying.

October 13, 2024

Hurricane Helene disinformation campaigns

Hurricane Helene disinformation made disaster recovery that much harder

Unraveling Hurricanes Helene and Milton: Disinformation in the Eye of the Storm

While Hurricane Helene wreaked physical destruction across the southeastern United States, another less visible but equally dangerous force emerged in its wake: disinformation. As communities grappled with the devastating impact of the storm, false narratives and conspiracy theories quickly flooded digital platforms, undermining relief efforts and sowing confusion. The Hurricane Helene disinformation campaign serves as a stark reminder of how misinformation can exacerbate the challenges already faced during natural disasters.

The Storm of False Narratives

As Hurricane Helene made landfall in Florida on September 26, 2024, and tore across multiple states, the usual flood of news reports and social media posts followed. However, amidst the legitimate updates, a tide of disinformation quickly began to circulate. Rumors ranged from claims that federal disaster funds were being siphoned off to suggestions that FEMA was using the chaos as an opportunity to seize private property. These baseless theories were amplified through social media platforms, with some posts gaining widespread traction and undermining public trust in government responses.

Congresswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene — of “Jewish space lasers” and Christian nationalism infamy — claimed that it’s obvious Democrats control the weather, as evidenced by a shared C-SPAN clip from the Obama years with then-CIA Director John Brennan talking about the highly theoretical and as of yet untried science of geoengineering. Because the very best way to keep your global conspiracy a top secret is to broadcast it into the public domain on C-SPAN.

Some viral posts alleged that the government had restricted airspace above affected areas, not for safety reasons, but as part of a shadowy conspiracy to cover up the true extent of the damage (for what reason is not specified). Other false reports claimed that FEMA was blocking local relief efforts and taking control of private land for nefarious purposes. These rumors not only spread fear and confusion but also hindered relief operations, as some individuals refused aid or hesitated to evacuate based on false information — endangering and perhaps even taking lives.

The Role of Digital Platforms in Spreading Misinformation

Digital platforms, especially social media, have played a significant role in the proliferation of disinformation during Hurricane Helene. The fast-moving nature of these platforms allowed misleading posts to go viral before accurate information could be verified and shared. The challenge for both federal agencies and local authorities was to quickly counter these false claims while also managing the logistics of the emergency response.

October 13, 2024

What was Gamergate?

Today, we’re diving into the labyrinthine tale of Gamergate—an episode that unfolded in 2014 but echoes into today’s digital sociology. What was Gamergate? It was a kind of canary in the coalmine — a tale of online intrigue, cultural upheaval, and for some, an awakening to the virulent undercurrents of internet anonymity.

I. Origins and Triggering Events: The Spark That Lit the Fire

In August 2014, an unassuming blog post titled “The Zoe Post” by Eron Gjoni set off a chain reaction that few could have foreseen. Through this post, which detailed his personal grievances against Zoe Quinn, a game developer, the seed of misinformation was sown. The post falsely implicated Quinn in an unethical affair with Nathan Grayson, a gaming journalist, suggesting she had manipulated him for favorable coverage of her game Depression Quest. This unfounded claim was the initial spark that ignited the raging internet inferno of Gamergate.

The allegations quickly spread across forums like 4chan, a breeding ground for anonymity and chaos. Here, the narrative morphed into a menacing campaign that took aim at Quinn and other women in the gaming industry. The escalation was not just rapid—it was coordinated, a harbinger of the kind of internet and meme warfare that has since become all too familiar.

II. Targets of Harassment: The Human Cost of Online Fury

What followed was an onslaught of harassment against women at the heart of the gaming industry. Zoe Quinn wasn’t alone in this; Anita Sarkeesian and Brianna Wu also bore the brunt of this vicious campaign. This wasn’t just trolling or mean tweets—it was a barrage of rape threats, death threats, and doxing attempts, creating a reality where digital assault became a daily occurrence.

Others got caught in the crossfire, too—individuals like Jenn Frank and Mattie Brice, who dared to defend the victims or criticize Gamergate, found themselves subject to the same malevolent noise. Even Phil Fish, a game developer, saw his private data leaked in a cruel display of digital vigilantism.

III. Nature of the Harassment: When Digital Attacks Go Beyond the Screen

Gamergate painted a harrowing picture of the scope and scale of online harassment. Orchestrated attacks didn’t stop at vitriolic tweets; they extended to doxing, where victims’ personal information was broadcast publicly, and “swatting,” a dangerous “prank” that involves making false police reports to provoke a SWAT team response.

Platforms like Twitter, 4chan, and its notorious sibling 8chan were the stages upon which this drama played out. Here, an army of “sockpuppet” accounts created an overwhelming maelstrom, blurring the lines between dissent and digital terrorism.

Gamergate red-pilled right work to inflict pain, elect Trump

IV. Motivations and Ideology: Misogyny and Political Underpinnings

At its core, Gamergate was more than just a gamers’ revolt; it was a flashpoint in a broader cultural war, defined by misogyny and anti-feminism. This was a resistance against the shifting dynamics within the gaming world—a refusal to accept the increasing roles women were assuming.

Moreover, Gamergate was entangled with the burgeoning alt-right movement. Figures like Milo Yiannopoulos latched onto the controversy, using platforms like Breitbart News as megaphones for their ideas. Here, Gamergate served as both a symptom and a gateway, introducing many to the alt-right’s narrative of disenchantment and defiance against progressive change.

Gamergate’s Lasting Legacy and the “Great Meme War”

Gamergate wasn’t just a flashpoint in the world of gaming; it was the breeding ground for a new kind of online warfare. The tactics honed during Gamergate—coordinated harassment, the use of memes as cultural weapons, and the manipulation of platforms like Twitter and 4chan—became the playbook for a much larger, more consequential battle: the so-called “Great Meme War” that helped fuel Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign.

The very same troll armies that harassed women in the gaming industry turned their attention toward mainstream politics, using the lessons learned in Gamergate to spread disinformation, amplify division, and create chaos. Memes became more than just jokes; they became political tools wielded with precision, reaching millions and shaping narratives in ways traditional media struggled to keep up with. What began as a seemingly insular controversy in the gaming world would go on to sow the seeds of a far more disruptive force, one that reshaped modern political discourse.

The influence of these tactics is still felt today, as the digital landscape continues to be a battleground where information warfare is waged daily. Gamergate was the first tremor in a cultural earthquake that has redefined how power, politics, and identity are contested in the digital age. As we move forward, understanding its origins and its impact on today’s sociopolitical environment is essential if we hope to navigate—and counter—the dark currents of digital extremism.

In retrospect, Gamergate wasn’t an isolated incident but a prelude, a trial run for the troll armies that would soon storm the gates of political power. Its legacy, while grim, offers critical insights into the fragility and volatility of our online spaces—and the urgent need for vigilance in the face of future campaigns of digital manipulation.

October 10, 2024

Right-Wing Media Outlets

The Echo Chamber of Deceit: Right-Wing Media Outlets, Disinformation, and the Conspiracy Industrial Complex

In an era where truth is increasingly under siege, disinformation has become a weapon of mass confusion—and no faction wields it with more fervor than the vast right-wing media machine. From fringe conspiracy theorists lurking in dark corners of the internet to mainstream outlets that once feigned journalistic credibility, these media entities have mastered the art of crafting narratives that distort, divide, and deceive.

But the effects of this disinformation aren’t limited to a few misguided souls. These conspiracy-laden outlets drive real-world consequences, spreading chaos and undermining democratic institutions with each clickbait headline and manufactured outrage. Whether fueling distrust in elections, amplifying extremist ideologies, or fostering a sense of victimhood among their audiences, these outlets play a pivotal role in shaping the political landscape—and not for the better.

In this post, we’ll dive into some of the most notorious right-wing media outlets pushing disinformation and conspiracy theories, exploring how they have built empires of falsehoods and what it means for a society increasingly untethered from reality (for the antidote to this list, please see our set of curated trusted expert sources on political and historical topics).

Building Empires of Falsehoods

These right-wing media outlets have built empires of falsehoods by capitalizing on two critical factors: the erosion of trust in traditional media and the increasing polarization of political discourse. As public faith in mainstream journalism wanes, largely due to relentless attacks branding them as “fake news” or “liberal bias,” alternative outlets step into the vacuum. They promise their audiences “unfiltered truth” but deliver carefully curated content designed to inflame rather than inform. The business model thrives on sensationalism—conspiracy theories and emotionally charged stories that draw clicks, shares, and ad revenue. Whether it’s the undermining of election results, promoting COVID-19 misinformation, or fostering anti-government sentiment, these outlets operate in an ecosystem where outrage is profitable, and facts are malleable.

For a society increasingly untethered from reality, the implications are grave. When large swaths of the public are consistently exposed to a parallel universe of disinformation, the ability to engage in reasoned discourse or even agree on basic facts erodes. This creates a fertile ground for extremism, where misinformation is weaponized to radicalize, isolate, and enrage. Civic institutions that rely on trust and shared reality—elections, the judiciary, and public health—are undermined, weakening the very foundation of democracy. In a world where conspiracy theories and falsehoods become the currency of political influence, society drifts ever closer to a reality in which truth is irrelevant, and power is achieved through manipulation and division.

Let’s take a look at some of the most egregious offenders on the right, who routinely eschew any interest in journalistic integrity or independent verification of facts or sources and instead have a tendency to, well, make shit up (or enable bad shit to happen on their platforms).

Right-Wing Media Outlets

Outlet or Individual	Description
4chan	Since its launch in 2003, 4chan has become a key platform in shaping internet subculture, particularly through its creation and dissemination of memes. The site operates as an anonymous imageboard, with users posting on a wide range of topics, from anime to politics. With over 22 million unique monthly visitors, 4chan remains one of the most influential and controversial online communities, often cited for both its creative output and its association with extremist content.
8chan	Known for its alt-right extremism and ties to mass shootings, 8chan was crucial in spreading conspiracy theories like QAnon. Banned and later rebranded as 8kun, the platform gained notoriety during the Gamergate controversy, attracting users banned from other platforms.
Alex Jones	Founder of InfoWars, a prominent conspiracy theorist known for promoting various false claims and conspiracy theories.
Alexander Marlow	Editor-in-chief of Breitbart News, known for maintaining the site’s far-right editorial stance.
American News	American News is a conservative news outlet that focuses on pro-Republican content. With a significant online presence, it engages a large conservative audience, contributing to the polarization of political discourse in the U.S. through its right-leaning coverage.
American Renaissance	White supremacist website run by Jared Taylor.
Andrew Anglin	White supremacist who started the Daily Stormer in response to Obama‘s election
Ben Shapiro	Former Breitbart columnist and founder of The Daily Wire
Blaze TV	Glenn Beck’s network
Breitbart News	Online news site known for its right-wing perspectives. Former chairman Steve Bannon; funded by Robert Mercer.
Cassandra Fairbanks	Cassandra Fairbanks is a political activist and journalist best known for her support of Donald Trump. Previously a Bernie Sanders supporter, she has worked for outlets like Sputnik News and The Gateway Pundit.
Chanel Rion	Chief White House correspondent for OANN, known for her conservative reporting and support of Trump.
Charles Hurt	Opinion editor of The Washington Times, known for his conservative political commentary.
Christopher Ruddy	CEO of Newsmax and significant figure in operational and editorial direction.
Daily Stormer	White supremacist, neo-Nazi website founded by Andrew Anglin in reaction to Obama’s election.
Dan Bongino	Dan Bongino is a prominent American conservative commentator, radio host, and author. His background includes serving as an NYPD officer from 1995 to 1999, followed by a distinguished career as a US Secret Service agent, where he worked on the Presidential Protective Division under both the Bush and Obama administrations. Bongino is highly educated, with a BS and MS from Queens College and an MBA from Penn State. His popular show, “The Dan Bongino Show,” attracted about 8.5 million listeners as of October 2021, ranking second among those vying to succeed Rush Limbaugh. He has authored several New York Times bestsellers, including Spygate: The Attempted Sabotage of Donald J. Trump, and hosted “Unfiltered with Dan Bongino” on Fox News until April 2023
Drudge Report	The Drudge Report is a U.S.-based news aggregation website founded by Matt Drudge, known for breaking the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. The site consists primarily of links to stories from other news outlets and was once considered conservative, though its political leanings have been questioned since 2019.
EndingtheFed	Popularized by Ron Paul, Ending the Fed advocates for eliminating the Federal Reserve, criticizing it for contributing to inflation and financial crises. The platform is closely aligned with Tea Party movements from 2008 to 2012.
Epoch Times	A multi-language outlet founded by Chinese Americans associated with Falun Gong, known for its critical stance on the Chinese Communist Party, staunch support for Trump, and echoing of the Big Lie about Election 2020.
Fox News	Major cable news network known for its right-wing slant and influential conservative commentary. Fox News was found liable in a defamation lawsuit brought by Dominion Voting Systems, resulting in a settlement of nearly $1 billion after the network repeatedly aired false claims that Dominion’s voting machines were used to rig the 2020 presidential election.
Free Beacon	Founded in 2012, The Washington Free Beacon is a conservative news website known for its investigative reporting. Although aligned with conservative viewpoints, it has been criticized for publishing potentially misleading content.
Gateway Pundit	The Gateway Pundit is a far-right website founded in 2004, notorious for publishing falsehoods and hoaxes. In 2021, it was demonetized by Google. The site expanded significantly during the 2016 election and has faced multiple defamation lawsuits, leading to a Chapter 11 filing.
Gavin McInnes	Co-founder of Vice Media in 1994 and the Proud Boys in 2016
Greg Kelly	Notable host on Newsmax, known for his conservative views and support of Donald Trump.
InfoWars	Founded in 1999 by Alex Jones, InfoWars is notorious for promoting conspiracy theories like the New World Order and the Sandy Hook shooting “hoax,” for which it was ordered to pay $1.5 billion in damages. In 2024, InfoWars is scheduled to auction its assets as part of bankruptcy proceedings.
Jared Taylor	Jared Taylor is an American white supremacist and the editor of American Renaissance magazine. He founded the New Century Foundation to promote racial advocacy and hosts the annual American Renaissance Conference. Taylor has been widely accused of promoting racist ideologies.
Jordan Peterson	Jordan Peterson is a Canadian clinical psychologist, professor emeritus at the University of Toronto, and bestselling author who has gained widespread recognition for both his work in psychology and his often controversial views on cultural and political issues. His book 12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos became an international bestseller, selling over 5 million copies and being translated into more than 45 languages, propelling him to global fame as a public intellectual. Peterson has built a substantial online following, with over 7 million subscribers on his YouTube channel, where he shares lectures and discussions on psychology, philosophy, and culture. He gained notoriety for his opposition to Canada’s Bill C-16, which added gender identity and expression as protected categories, a stance that sparked both support and criticism.
Judicial Watch	A conservative watchdog group founded in 1994, Judicial Watch is known for its FOIA lawsuits targeting Democratic administrations. Under president Tom Fitton, it has been labeled by the SPLC as an anti-government extremist group, despite its significant influence in conservative circles.
Kathryn Limbaugh	Kathryn over some responsibilities for managing his media empire following her husband Rush Limbaugh’s death.
Larry Beasley	President and CEO of The Washington Times, overseeing the newspaper’s conservative editorial direction.
Laura Ingraham	Prime-time opinion host on Fox News, known for her conservative viewpoints and outspoken criticism of liberal policies.
Mike Cernovich	Mike Cernovich is an American right-wing social media personality and conspiracy theorist known for his involvement in #Gamergate and his segments on ‘The Alex Jones Show.’ He initially associated with the alt-right but now identifies with the new right, frequently promoting controversial views on free speech and engaging in inflammatory rhetoric.
Neil Patel	Co-founder and publisher of The Daily Caller, focusing on conservative news and commentary.
Newsmax	Newsmax is a conservative news and opinion media company founded in 1998. In 2014, it launched a cable television channel that reaches approximately 75 million households. The network is known for its right-wing and far-right leanings as well as its staunch pro-Trump coverage.
One America News Network (OANN)	OANN (One America News Network) is a far-right, pro-Trump cable news channel founded on July 4, 2013. Based in San Diego, it reaches an audience of 150,000 to 500,000 viewers and heavily relies on AT&T networks for revenue. The channel is known for promoting conspiracy theories and misinformation.
Parler	Parler, launched in 2018, is a social media platform promoting free speech, attracting predominantly right-wing users and Trump supporters. It saw a user surge during and after the 2020 U.S. presidential election amid accusations of censorship by mainstream platforms. The platform was removed from app stores following its role in organizing the January 6th Capitol riot but plans a relaunch in 2024.
RedState	RedState, founded in 2004 and owned by Salem Media Group, is a leading conservative blog known for its political activism and organizing events. The site has undergone staffing changes, notably during Trump’s presidency when critics of Trump were dismissed.
RedState Watcher	Founded in 2004, RedState Watcher is a conservative blog operated by Townhall Media, known for its right-wing bias and opinion pieces. It has a strong alignment with the Salem Media Group’s conservative perspectives.
Richard Spencer	Former Editor of the racist rag Taki’s Magazine and an early figure in the alt-right.
Right Wing Tribune	Right Wing Tribune is known for its right-wing propaganda and election season misinformation. It has been criticized for amplifying conspiracy theories and sensationalist stories that align with extreme conservative narratives.
Robert Herring, Sr.	Founder and CEO of One America News Network (OANN), known for its conservative, pro-Trump coverage.
Rumble	Rumble is a video-sharing platform launched in 2013 that positions itself as an alternative to YouTube, particularly for creators who feel they are censored or deplatformed by mainstream platforms. Rumble gained popularity among conservative, right-leaning, and libertarian creators, though it markets itself as a platform that champions “free speech” and content that may not fit with the guidelines of other social media giants.
Rupert Murdoch	Australian media mogul and founder of Fox and key influencer in the Fox News network’s overall direction.
Rush Limbaugh (deceased)	Original host and pioneering figure in conservative talk radio, known for his influential and controversial views. One of the first in a wave of political right-wing “shock jocks.”
Sean Hannity	Fox News host known for his strong conservative viewpoints, significant influence in right-wing media, and close relationship with Trump.
Steve Bannon	Former executive chairman of Brietbart News and a key figure in shaping the outlet’s editorial stance.
Stormfront	Founded by former KKK leader Don Black in 1996, Stormfront was the first major online hate site, centered on white nationalism. It has attracted over 300,000 registered users, with the site repeatedly taken down for violating hate speech policies.
Suzanne Scott	CEO of Fox News Media, overseeing all aspects of the network’s operations and editorial direction.
Taki’s Magazine	Taki’s Magazine, founded on February 5, 2007 by Taki Theodoracopulos, is known for its extreme right-wing political stance. The publication has drawn criticism for its racially controversial content and its backing of individuals associated with white nationalism, while continuing to publish provocative material critical of political correctness.
Tenet Media	Tenet Media is a far-right media organization implicated in Russian influence campaigns in the United States. It has been linked to the promotion of disinformation, especially around political elections and controversial social issues. The platform is currently under investigation by the DOJ for its involvement in spreading foreign-backed propaganda. Operating primarily through social media and online outlets, Tenet Media targets conservative audiences with sensationalized content that aligns with extreme right-wing views.
The Daily Caller	The Daily Caller, founded in 2010 by Tucker Carlson and Neil Patel with funding from conservative businessman Foster Friess, was launched as a right-leaning alternative to The Huffington Post. It aims to provide news and opinion content from a conservative perspective. Alongside its for-profit media site, The Daily Caller also operates a non-profit arm, The Daily Caller News Foundation, which has raised concerns about potential conflicts of interest and tax issues. Despite early claims of ideological independence, the outlet has been criticized for publishing misleading stories and engaging in partisan reporting. In 2020, Tucker Carlson sold his ownership stake, leaving Neil Patel as the majority owner.
The Daily Wire	The Daily Wire, an American conservative media company founded in 2015 by Ben Shapiro and Jeremy Boreing, has rapidly grown into a major player in digital media. By 2019, it ranked as the sixth-leading English-language publisher on Facebook, drawing massive engagement. The company surpassed $100 million in annual revenue in early 2022 and employed 150 people. Expanding its reach, The Daily Wire launched DailyWire+ in June 2022, offering video on demand for its popular content, including podcasts and video productions. Notably, “The Ben Shapiro Show” became the second most listened-to podcast in the U.S. by March 2019.
The Right Stuff	Largest white nationalist podcast network in the US.
The Rush Limbaugh Show	Long considered a staple of conservative talk radio, influential in shaping right-wing discourse.
The Sean Hannity Show	Radio show mixing news and conservative commentary, hosted by Sean Hannity.
The Washington Examiner	A conservative news outlet founded in Washington, D.C., the Washington Examiner transitioned from a daily newspaper to a weekly magazine in 2013. Owned by oil magnate Philip Anschutz, it is known for its right-leaning coverage and is often rated as having a “Lean Right” bias.
The Washington Times	Newspaper known for its conservative editorial content and often conspiratorial perspectives.
Tim Pool	Tim Pool is an independent journalist and political commentator who gained initial fame for his on-the-ground reporting during the Occupy Wall Street protests in 2011. Over time, Pool has shifted to a right-leaning stance, often criticized for promoting conspiracy theories and misinformation, particularly surrounding elections and COVID-19. He runs a popular YouTube channel where he discusses current events, frequently framing issues in a way that appeals to conservative and libertarian audiences. Though he claims to be politically independent, his content often aligns with right-wing perspectives, leading to accusations of bias.
True Pundit	True Pundit is a far-right fake news website known for promoting baseless conspiracy theories, especially regarding mass shootings and political figures. Operating with a “well-known modus operandi” of publishing unverified stories, the site ceased publishing new content in 2021.
Truthfeed	Truthfeed is a far-right news outlet notorious for publishing conspiracy theories and misinformation. Known for its strong right-wing bias, the platform has been criticized for aligning with conservative political agendas and contributing to a controversial media landscape dominated by conspiracy-driven narratives.
Tucker Carlson	Co-founder of The Daily Caller, no longer actively involved but was instrumental in the site’s creation. Went on to have a career as a Fox pundit before being abruptly terminated following the January 6 coup attempt and Dominion lawsuit.
VDARE	Founded in 1999 by Peter Brimelow, VDARE is a far-right website that advocates for strict immigration policies and is widely associated with white nationalism and white supremacy. The site has long been a platform for anti-immigration rhetoric, often intertwined with racist ideologies. Despite its influence in far-right circles, VDARE announced a suspension of its operations in July 2024, marking a potential end to its two-decade presence in the online white nationalist movement.
WikiLeaks	Launched by Julian Assange in 2006, WikiLeaks is renowned for leaking classified documents, including U.S. diplomatic cables and military logs, sparking debates on government transparency. It gained prominence for releasing DNC emails obtained from Russian hackers during the 2016 election, with Assange expressing a controversial preference for a GOP victory over Hillary Clinton.
YourNewsWire	Founded in 2014, YourNewsWire is a clickbait website infamous for promoting conspiracy theories and fake news, including some of the most shared hoaxes on social media. Despite being debunked over 80 times, the site remains a significant source of misinformation.
Zero Hedge	Zero Hedge is a far-right libertarian financial blog known for its bearish investment outlook and promotion of Austrian School economics. In addition to financial news, the site expanded into political content, often promoting conspiracy theories. Zero Hedge has been accused of spreading Russian propaganda and misinformation, especially regarding the coronavirus pandemic. It was banned from Google Ads in 2020 but was later reinstated.

September 12, 2024

Ukraine War Timeline

The war in Ukraine is less “surprising” to some who’ve seen it raging since 2014. Although it escalated greatly in 2022, the Ukraine war timeline ultimately dates back all the way to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

To understand the backstory — which is now inextricably intertwined with our own presidential history given the impeachment of Donald Trump over his phone calls with Zelensky to the Republican Party‘s current-day support of the aims of Vladimir Putin — we have to go back to a time when no one was stronger on anti-Russian policy than GOP darling Ronald Reagan.

1991 — Ukraine declares independence and becomes an independent entity after the fall of the Soviet Union
1994 — Ukraine agrees to give up its nuclear arsenal in exchange for a protection agreement with Russia, United States, Britain, and Ireland (Budapest Memorandum)
2004 — Viktor Yanukovich “wins” election under dubious circumstances and is deposed for a do over election, which he loses to Viktor Yuschenko (Orange Revolution)
2006 — Viktor Yanukovych begins working directly with Paul Manafort, in an effort to boost his image after his electoral loss. Manafort was known for his work helping the “Torturers’ Lobby” of brutal dictators around the world in the 1980s, with Roger Stone (another infamous dirty trickster best known for his role as a fixer for Richard Nixon).
2007 — Yanukovych’s Party of Regions does well in the Ukranian parliamentary elections, gaining a large number of seats credited to Manafort’s strategic advice about Western-style campaigning.
2010 — Yanukovych is elected President of Ukraine, again largely crediting Manafort’s strategies for his comeback.
Nov 2013 — Having promised a more European-style government in order to win the presidency in 2010, Yanukovych turned on his word and initiated more pro-Russian policies than the Ukranians had signed up for. Yanukovych is now beset by enormous public protests against the corruption of his regime, and his unilateral decision to abandon an association agreement with the EU in favor of a trade agreement with Russia (Maidan Revolution / Revolution of Dignity)
Feb 2014 — After a harrowing 93 days barricaded inside Kyiv’s Maidan Square, activists are victorious; Yanukovich is deposed and flees to Russia
Mar 2014 — Russian forces invade and annex the region of Crimea within Ukraine
Apr 2014 — Russian forces invade the Donetsk and Luhansk regions in eastern Ukraine, escalating a war that continues to this day and had already killed more than 14,000 people by the time the 2022 large scale invasion began
Apr 2014 — Hunter Biden and business partner Devon Archer join the board of Burisma
May 2014 — Candy magnate Petro Poroshenko succeeds Yanukovych as president of Ukraine

September 6, 2024

Right Wing Groups

Right wing groups in America have long wielded disproportionate influence over political discourse, policy-making, and the judiciary — quietly but effectively steering the country toward a more authoritarian, corporate-driven agenda. Groups like the Federalist Society and Heritage Foundation operate as power brokers in the conservative ecosystem, funneling money and influence to shape not just elections, but the ideological future of the nation.

The Federalist Society, for example, has become a judicial kingmaker, successfully installing justices on the Supreme Court who subscribe to its narrow view of constitutional “originalism”—leading to landmark decisions like Dobbs v. Jackson, which rolled back reproductive rights in America. Meanwhile, Heritage’s Project 2025 serves as a blueprint for a far-right authoritarian takeover of federal agencies, ready to gut progressive reforms and install Christian nationalist ideology in their place.

But these are just a few key players in an ever-expanding web of right-wing groups. The National Rifle Association (NRA) remains a force in stoking fears around gun rights to mobilize voters, while Fox News continues to manipulate public discourse with fear-mongering and disinformation to drive its viewers further into a reactionary worldview. Behind the scenes, the Council for National Policy (CNP) operates as a shadowy network of conservative elites pulling the strings, and groups like the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) and Turning Point USA drive extremist policies at the state and grassroots levels.

Add to that the influence of organizations like the Family Research Council, Focus on the Family, and PragerU, and it becomes clear that right-wing power in America is deeply entrenched, feeding off the fear and division these groups systematically create. The stakes for democracy and the future of civil liberties couldn’t be higher.

One way to address the threat is to become familiar with it. Here is a cheatsheet to some of the most influential and notable right wing groups in operation today.

The Federalist Society

The Federalist Society is a powerful, right-wing legal organization that seeks to reshape the U.S. judiciary by advocating for originalism and textualism—the interpretation of the Constitution based on its supposedly “original” meaning (as interpreted by conservative judges, of course). Founded in 1982, this group has steadily gained influence by grooming conservative legal talent, promoting judges who share their philosophy, and challenging progressive legislation, with many of its members appointed to federal courts, including the Supreme Court.

Their ultimate goal is to roll back decades of civil rights protections, environmental regulations, and reproductive freedoms in favor of limited government (even ultra-limited government) and deregulated markets. Now led by conservative activist Leonard Leo, The Federalist Society’s growing clout can be seen in the success of getting their chosen justices onto the Supreme Court, paving the way for decisions like Dobbs v. Jackson, which overturned Roe v. Wade and set back reproductive rights in America by half a century. The organization’s influence has been particularly notable during Republican administrations, especially under former President Donald Trump, who appointed 3 of the Court’s 9 straight from the Federalist list.

A full two thirds of the current U.S. Supreme Court justices have been affiliated with or supported by The Federalist Society. These justices share the Society’s commitment to originalism and textualism, and many were recommended or championed by the organization during the judicial nomination process. The following 6 justices have ties to The Federalist Society:

John Roberts (Chief Justice) – Although not a formal member, Roberts has participated in Federalist Society events and has been described as ideologically aligned with the group’s principles.
Clarence Thomas – An advocate of originalism, Thomas has long been associated with the judicial philosophy promoted by The Federalist Society. He has spoken at their events and is widely seen as one of their intellectual leaders on the bench.
Samuel Alito – Like Roberts, Alito is not a formal member but has participated in Federalist Society activities and shares their conservative judicial outlook.
Neil Gorsuch – A formal member of The Federalist Society before his nomination, Gorsuch was strongly backed by the organization when he was selected to replace Antonin Scalia in 2017.
Brett Kavanaugh – Kavanaugh was supported by The Federalist Society throughout his career, and his nomination to the Supreme Court in 2018 was actively promoted by the group.
Amy Coney Barrett – A former member of The Federalist Society, Barrett was a professor at Notre Dame Law School, where she worked closely with the organization. She was nominated to the Supreme Court in 2020 to replace Ruth Bader Ginsburg.

The Heritage Foundation

The Heritage Foundation, founded in 1973, has long been a key architect of conservative policy in the United States. The Foundation’s efforts consistently push for policies that prioritize corporate interests, deregulation, and concentrated executive power, even at the expense of democratic institutions and processes.

Over the decades, The Heritage Foundation has become a significant force in shaping Republican legislative agendas, providing policy proposals to GOP lawmakers and conservative administrations since Ronald Reagan. However, this institutional influence has often facilitated the entrenchment of an authoritarian strain of right-wing ideology that has now metasticized into the body politic.

August 22, 2024

About

I was lucky enough to be one of the first professional tech bloggers, still work in digital media, and avidly keep up with the technology sector. Back in the proverbial day I covered the rise of social media from the launches and earliest days of Facebook (aka Meta), Twitter (aka X), YouTube, and a host of graveyard denizens from Friendster to MySpace. I lived and worked in Silicon Valley for a time and became disillusioned with much of the ideology while remaining avidly interested in the pockets still driven by the idea of democratizing access to information. Now I love tinkering with tools (especially AI, automation, and data analysis) as well as writing personal and experimental stuff on my blog(s).

I’ve also been a political activist since my college years, and especially since 2015 have been pretty intensely into politics — which, among many other things, has led to an ongoing protracted “re-factoring” of what I thought I knew about American history.

An academic by temperament, I research various topics at depth as a “serious amateur.” For the past 9+ years I’ve been studying fascism, authoritarianism, narcissism, cults, disinformation, conspiracy theories, dark money, and Christian nationalism and their tributaries — many of which share intersection points. My love of information management keeps me juggling multiple projects and exploring the connections between topics worth taking a closer look at; I’m an incorrigible generalist in a specialists’ world, while craving meaningful depth into each subject.

Inspiration

I am motivated by some of the old school values of the internet — towards openness, democratization of information, shining light into dark spaces, giving a voice to the people beyond the gatekeepers of major media, and more. It’s lost a fair amount of that spirit now in the corporate scrum to own its vast landscapes, but it can still be found here and there — and I hope to offer another little output on the stormy seas for those who wander and wish to not feel lost.

Ethics

I don’t take any sponsorship money for the site, because I’m not interested in tailoring my point of view towards whatever maximizes profit. In part because commerce content is my day job, I do monetize (for a whopping trivial amount) through affiliate links to books — the kind of “product” I can get behind recommending strongly to people. It also helps me understand what my audience is most interested in, and allows me to track what people find compelling enough to take action on. If you click on my book links and end up ordering something from Amazon, it helps me understand how better to interest and serve this audience. So please feel free to do so, but not obligated.

August 11, 2024

Conspiracy Theory Books

In half a decade we’ve gone from Jeb Bush making a serious run for president to Marjorie Taylor Greene running unopposed and winning a House seat in Georgia. QAnon came seemingly out of nowhere, but taps into a much deeper and older series of conspiracy theories that have surfaced, resurfaced, and been remixed throughout time.

Why do people believe in conspiracy theories? In an increasingly complex world of information bombarding us as blinding speed and high volume, the cognitive appeal of easy answers and turnkey “community” may be much stronger than ever before.

List of conspiracy theory books

It’s a deep topic so we’d best get started. If you’ve got an urgent issue with a friend or loved one, start here:

Best for deprogramming a friend:

Escaping the Rabbit Hole: How to Debunk Conspiracy Theories Using Facts, Logic, and Respect — Mick West

More conspiracy theory books:

Anti-Intellectualism in American Life — Richard Hofstadter

Richard Hofstadter’s Anti-Intellectualism in American Life is a sharp exploration of the recurring tension between intellectualism and populism in the United States. Hofstadter traces the roots of American anti-intellectualism, revealing how a distrust of intellectual elites has been woven into the fabric of American culture, often tied to religious fervor, educational systems, and political movements. He argues that this skepticism towards intellectuals has influenced public policy and shaped national identity, creating a persistent undercurrent that challenges the value of critical thinking and expertise in the public sphere. Through historical analysis, Hofstadter illuminates how this strain of thought has impacted American democracy, often in ways that prioritize emotional appeal over reasoned discourse.

Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-Year History — Kurt Andersen

Kurt Andersen’s Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-Year History offers a sweeping narrative that traces America’s propensity for embracing fantastical thinking from the earliest settlers to the present day. Andersen argues that the American tendency to blur the lines between reality and fantasy has deep historical roots, driven by a unique blend of religious zeal, entrepreneurial spirit, and cultural escapism. He explores how this inclination has shaped everything from politics to entertainment, resulting in a culture where conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and magical thinking thrive. Through sharp analysis and a broad historical lens, Andersen paints a vivid picture of how America’s love affair with fantasy has led to the current era of “alternative facts” and widespread distrust of objective truth.

On Disinformation: How to Fight for Truth and Protect Democracy — Lee McIntyre

Lee McIntyre’s On Disinformation: How to Fight for Truth and Protect Democracy is a concise yet powerful examination of the threat disinformation poses to truth and democratic values. McIntyre explores the origins and tactics of disinformation campaigns, revealing how they exploit cognitive biases and social media to sow confusion and distrust. He emphasizes that disinformation is not just a byproduct of misinformation but a deliberate weapon used to undermine public discourse and erode the foundations of democracy. The book provides a call to action, urging individuals and institutions to become vigilant defenders of truth through critical thinking, media literacy, and active resistance against the forces of disinformation. With a clear-eyed approach, McIntyre offers practical strategies for combating this growing menace in a time when truth itself is under siege.

Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon — Mia Bloom and Sophia Moskalenko

Mia Bloom and Sophia Moskalenko’s Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon delves into the disturbing world of QAnon, unraveling the psychological and social dynamics that fuel its growth. The authors explore how this conspiracy theory, with its bizarre blend of pastel aesthetics and lurid allegations of pedophilia, has captivated a diverse array of followers. Bloom and Moskalenko dissect the movement’s appeal, showing how it taps into deep-seated fears, identity politics, and a longing for community in a time of uncertainty. They reveal the real-world consequences of QAnon’s spread, from fractured families to violent extremism, and highlight the challenges of deprogramming those ensnared by its false narratives. Through rigorous analysis and empathetic insight, the book offers a critical look at how conspiracy theories like QAnon thrive in a polarized society and the urgent need to address their dangerous influence.

Republic of Lies: American Conspiracy Theorists and Their Surprising Rise to Power — Anna Merlan

Anna Merlan’s Republic of Lies: American Conspiracy Theorists and Their Surprising Rise to Power is an incisive exploration of the burgeoning influence of conspiracy theories in American life. Merlan takes readers on a journey through the diverse and often troubling world of conspiracy believers, from UFO enthusiasts to anti-vaxxers, exposing the cultural and political forces that have propelled these fringe ideas into the mainstream. She delves into how conspiracy theories have gained traction across the political spectrum, fueled by distrust in institutions and amplified by the internet’s echo chambers. With a keen eye for detail and a compassionate approach, Merlan uncovers the real-world impact of these theories, from shaping political movements to influencing national discourse. The book serves as a wake-up call to the power of misinformation and the urgent need to understand and counter the spread of dangerous ideologies in an increasingly fractured society.

Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories — Rob Brotherton

Rob Brotherton’s Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories delves into the psychology behind why conspiracy theories are so compelling and why they persist in human societies. Brotherton examines the cognitive biases and psychological tendencies that make us prone to seeing patterns, connecting dots, and doubting official narratives, even when evidence is lacking. He explores the historical and cultural contexts that have given rise to various conspiracy theories, showing how they tap into deep-seated fears and uncertainties. By blending psychology with history, Brotherton provides a nuanced understanding of why conspiracy theories are not just fringe beliefs but a fundamental part of human thinking. The book challenges readers to recognize their own susceptibility to conspiratorial thinking and emphasizes the importance of critical thinking in a world where misinformation can easily take root.

The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind — Gustave Le Bon

Gustave Le Bon’s The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind is a pioneering work in social psychology that examines the behavior of crowds and the psychological mechanisms that drive collective action. Le Bon argues that individuals, when part of a crowd, lose their sense of individual responsibility and rationality, becoming susceptible to emotional contagion and impulsive behavior. He explores how crowds can be swayed by charismatic leaders, simplistic ideas, and the power of suggestion, often leading to irrational and sometimes destructive outcomes. Le Bon’s analysis extends to the ways in which crowds influence politics, culture, and social movements, offering insights into the dynamics of mass psychology that remain relevant today. His work lays the foundation for understanding how public opinion can be manipulated and how groupthink can override reason, making it a fascinating text for anyone interested in the psychology of collective behavior.

The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements — Eric Hoffer

Eric Hoffer’s The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements is a profound exploration of the psychological and social forces that drive individuals to join and commit to mass movements. Hoffer examines the appeal of these movements to the “true believer,” a person often disillusioned with their current life and seeking purpose through collective identity. He argues that mass movements, whether religious, political, or social, provide a sense of belonging and certainty by offering simple, absolute answers to complex problems. Hoffer delves into the dynamics of fanaticism, showing how movements attract followers who are willing to sacrifice their individuality for the cause. His insights into the motivations behind mass movements remain strikingly relevant, shedding light on how charismatic leaders and unifying ideologies can mobilize people, often with profound and sometimes dangerous consequences. The book serves as a timeless analysis of the psychological underpinnings of social movements and the power they wield over the human psyche.

The Undertow: Scenes from a Slow Civil War — Jeff Sharlet

Jeff Sharlet’s The Undertow: Scenes from a Slow Civil War is a haunting and evocative exploration of the deepening political and cultural divides in contemporary America. Through a series of vivid, immersive narratives, Sharlet captures the voices and lives of people across the country who are caught up in the rising tide of polarization, extremism, and unrest. He paints a picture of a nation at a tipping point, where the fractures in society are widening, and the specter of a “slow civil war” looms ever larger. With his keen eye for detail and empathetic storytelling, Sharlet reveals how fear, anger, and a longing for belonging are driving forces behind the growing tensions, offering a powerful and unsettling portrait of a country on the brink.

The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory — Jesse Walker

Jesse Walker’s The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory offers a comprehensive and insightful history of conspiracy theories in American culture, showing how they have been a persistent and influential force throughout the nation’s history. Walker categorizes these theories into five archetypes—enemy outside, enemy within, enemy above, enemy below, and the benevolent conspiracy—illustrating how each has manifested in different eras and contexts. He argues that conspiracy thinking is not just a fringe phenomenon but a fundamental part of American political and social life, shaping public discourse and policy. By tracing the evolution of conspiracies from the colonial period to the present, Walker reveals how they reflect deeper anxieties and cultural tensions, often serving as a means for people to make sense of complex and unsettling realities. The book underscores the idea that paranoia is woven into the fabric of American identity, influencing how people perceive power, trust, and truth.

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see the full list on bookshop.org

Learn more about conspiracy theories

July 19, 2024

Christian Nationalism Timeline

Evangelicals in church raising their hands high for Christian nationalism

Christian nationalism, a belief system that intertwines national identity with Christian faith, has been a significant force in American history — and the Christian nationalism timeline may go back further than you think. It erroneously asserts that the United States is fundamentally a Christian nation and should be governed by biblical principles.

This flawed ideology has influenced various aspects of American life, from politics to education, and continues to shape the discourse around national identity and public policy. Understanding the evolution of Christian nationalism provides critical insights into its current manifestations and implications for the future.

In recent years, the resurgence of Christian nationalism has become more visible and influential in American politics. The events of January 6, 2021, and the Big Lie rhetoric surrounding the 2020 presidential election highlighted the power and reach of this movement. With key figures like Russell Vought and organizations like Project 2025 advocating for policies that align with their interpretation of Christian values, it is essential to examine the timeline of Christian nationalism to grasp its roots, growth, and contemporary relevance.

Vote them out, while we still can

Then, get to the polls and take everyone you know with you. Do not allow the right-wing to establish a theocracy in this country — no matter what your faith (or lack thereof), we have common interest in preventing any one faith from informing the US government.

A line of diverse and young-looking voters forms at the polling place -- the right-wing's worst nightmare

Just because they say the words “Christian nation” does not alter the actual history in which the founders were deists who were adamant about keeping the political and religious spheres separate — having seen the ills it can cause to entwine them. Is America a Christian nation? No. We rejected the divine right of kings, very consciously and loudly so at the time. It is easy to pick up this sentiment in the writings of the founders both inside and outside of the founding documents.

Christian nationalism timeline

1607 — The Jamestown Colony is established in Virginia. Early settlers bring a mix of Christian beliefs that will influence American culture.
1620 — The Pilgrims arrive on the Mayflower, establishing the Plymouth Colony. They seek religious freedom after being persecuted for their lack of conformity to the Anglican church in England, and establish a community based on their Puritan beliefs.
1630 — John Winthrop delivers his sermon “A Model of Christian Charity,” articulating the vision of America as a “city upon a hill,” influencing the concept of a Christian nation.
1730-1740s — The First Great Awakening, a series of religious revivals, sweeps through the American colonies, strengthening evangelicalism.
1776 — The Declaration of Independence is signed. The Founding Fathers, while influenced primarily by Enlightenment ideas, also incorporate some Christian principles.
1787 — The U.S. Constitution is drafted, establishing a secular government with the First Amendment guaranteeing freedom of religion.

May 3, 2024

Prebunking

The concept of “prebunking” emerges as a proactive strategy in the fight against disinformation, an ever-present challenge in the digital era where information spreads at unprecedented speed and scale. In essence, prebunking involves the preemptive education of the public about the techniques and potential contents of disinformation campaigns before they encounter them. This method seeks not only to forewarn but also to forearm individuals, making them more resilient to the effects of misleading information.

Understanding disinformation

Disinformation, by definition, is false information that is deliberately spread with the intent to deceive or mislead. It’s a subset of misinformation, which encompasses all false information regardless of intent.

In our current “information age,” the rapid dissemination of information through social media, news outlets, and other digital platforms has amplified the reach and impact of disinformation campaigns. These campaigns can have various motives, including political manipulation, financial gain, or social disruption — and at times, all of the above; particularly in the case of information warfare.

The mechanism of prebunking

Prebunking works on the principle of “inoculation theory,” a concept borrowed from virology. Much like a vaccine introduces a weakened form of a virus to stimulate the immune system’s response to it, prebunking introduces individuals to a weakened form of an argument or disinformation tactic, thereby enabling them to recognize and resist such tactics in the future.

The process typically involves several key elements:

Exposure to Techniques: Educating people on the common techniques used in disinformation campaigns, such as emotional manipulation, conspiracy theories, fake experts, and misleading statistics.
Content Examples: Providing specific examples of disinformation can help individuals recognize similar patterns in future encounters.
Critical Thinking: Encouraging critical thinking and healthy skepticism, particularly regarding information sources and their motives. Helping people identify trustworthy media sources and discern credible sources in general.
Engagement: Interactive and engaging educational methods, such as games or interactive modules, have been found to be particularly effective in prebunking efforts.

The effectiveness of prebunking

Research into the effectiveness of prebunking is promising. Studies have shown that when individuals are forewarned about specific misleading strategies or the general prevalence of disinformation, they are better able to identify false information and less likely to be influenced by it. Prebunking can also increase resilience against disinformation across various subjects, from health misinformation such as the anti-vaccine movement to political propaganda.

However, the effectiveness of prebunking can vary based on several factors:

Timing: For prebunking to be most effective, it needs to occur before exposure to disinformation. Once false beliefs have taken root, they are much harder to correct — due to the backfire effect and other psychological, cognitive, and social factors.
Relevance: The prebunking content must be relevant to the audience’s experiences and the types of disinformation they are likely to encounter.
Repetition: Like many educational interventions, the effects of prebunking can diminish over time, suggesting that periodic refreshers may be necessary.

Challenges and considerations

While promising, prebunking is not a panacea for the disinformation dilemma. It faces several challenges:

Scalability: Effectively deploying prebunking campaigns at scale, particularly in a rapidly changing information environment, is difficult.
Targeting: Identifying and reaching the most vulnerable or targeted groups before they encounter disinformation requires sophisticated understanding and resources.
Adaptation by Disinformers: As prebunking strategies become more widespread, those who spread disinformation may adapt their tactics to circumvent these defenses.

Moreover, there is the ethical consideration of how to prebunk without inadvertently suppressing legitimate debate or dissent, ensuring that the fight against disinformation does not become a vector for censorship.

The role of technology and media

Given the digital nature of contemporary disinformation campaigns, technology companies and media organizations play a crucial role in prebunking efforts. Algorithms that prioritize transparency, the promotion of factual content, and the demotion of known disinformation sources can aid in prebunking. Media literacy campaigns, undertaken by educational institutions and NGOs, can also equip the public with the tools they need to navigate the information landscape critically.

Prebunking represents a proactive and promising approach to mitigating the effects of disinformation. By educating the public about the tactics used in disinformation campaigns and fostering critical engagement with media, it’s possible to build a more informed and resilient society.

However, the dynamic and complex nature of digital disinformation means that prebunking must be part of a broader strategy that includes technology solutions, regulatory measures, and ongoing research. As we navigate this challenge, the goal remains clear: to cultivate an information ecosystem where truth prevails, and public discourse thrives on accuracy and integrity.

April 30, 2024

Conspiracy Theory Dictionary

conspiracy theories, disinformation, and fake news

Conspiracy Theory Dictionary: From QAnon to Gnostics

Essentially, QAnon is a recycling of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion conspiracy theory that drove the Nazi ideology and led to the genocide of over 6 million Jews, gypsies, gays, and others who made Hitler mad. It’s a derivative of the global cabal conspiracy theory, and is riddled with the kind of conspiratorial paranoia that led to the deaths of over 75 million people in World War II.

The spread of the QAnon conspiracy theory greatly benefits from historical memory, getting a generous marketing boost from sheer familiarity. It also benefits from an authoritarian mentality growing louder in America, with a predilection for magical thinking and a susceptibility to conspiratorial thinking.

Tales as old as time

Conspiracy theories have been around much longer even than the Protocols — stretching back about as long as recorded history itself. Why do people believe in conspiracy theories? In an increasingly complex world brimming with real-time communication capabilities, the cognitive appeal of easy answers may simply be stronger than ever before.

Anthropologists believe that conspiracy theory has been around for about as long as human beings have been able to communicate. Historians describe one of the earliest conspiracy theories as originating in ancient Mesopotamia, involving a god named Marduk and a goddess called Tiamat — both figures in Babylonian creation mythology.

According to the myth, Marduk defeated Tiamat in battle and created the world from her body — but some ancient Mesopotamians at the time thought that the story was not actually a mere myth, but a political cover-up of a real-life conspiracy in which the followers of Marduk secretly plotted to overthrow Tiamat to seize power.

This “original conspiracy theory” was likely driven by political tensions between city-states in ancient Mesopotamia, although there are very few written records still around to corroborate the origin of the theory or perception of the story at the time. Nevertheless, the Marduk-Tiamat myth is regarded as one of the earliest known examples of widespread belief in conspiracy theories, and it points to the relative commonality and frequency of false narratives throughout history.

Whether deployed purposefully to deceive a population for political advantage, created to exploit people economically, or invented “naturally” as a simple yet satisfying explanation for otherwise complicated and overwhelming phenomena, conspiracy theories are undoubtedly here to stay in culture more broadly for some time to come. We had best get the lay of the land, and understand the language we might use to describe and talk about them.

conspiracy theories: old men around the world map, by midjourney

Conspiracy Theory Dictionary

4chan	A notorious internet message board with an unruly culture capable of trolling, pranks, and crimes.
8chan	If 4chan wasn’t raw and lawless enough for you, you could try the even more right-wing “free speech”-haven 8chan while it still stood (now 8kun). Described by its founder Frederick Bennan as “if 4chan and reddit had a baby,” the site is notorious for incubating Gamergate, which morphed into PizzaGate, which morphed into QAnon — and for generally being a cesspool of humanity’s worst stuff.
9/11 truthers	People who believe the attacks on the Twin Towers in New York City in 2001 were either known about ahead of time and allowed to happen, or were intentionally planned by the US government.
alien abduction	People who claim to have been captured by intelligent life from another planet, taken to a spaceship or other plane of existence, and brought back — as well as the folks who believe them.
American carnage	Evocative of “immense loss” in the Nazi mythology
Antifa	Antifa is anti-fascism, so the anti-anti-fascists are just fascists wrapped in a double negative. They are the real cancel culture — and a dangerous one (book burning and everything!).
Anti-Semitism	One of history’s oldest hatreds, stretching back to early biblical times
Biblical inerrancy	Biblical inerrancy is the doctrine that the Bible, in its original manuscripts, is without error or fault in all its teachings.
birtherism	One of Donald Trump‘s original Big Lies — that President Barack Obama wasn’t born in the U.S. and therefore, wasn’t a “legitimate” president.
Black Lives Matter	A social justice movement advocating for non-violent civil disobedience in protest against incidents of police brutality and all racially motivated violence against black people.
blood libel	A false accusation or myth that Jewish people used the blood of Christians, especially children, in religious rituals, historically used to justify persecution of Jews.
child trafficking	The illegal practice of procuring or trading children for the purpose of exploitation, such as forced labor, sexual exploitation, or illegal adoption.
Christian Identity	A religious belief system that asserts that white people of European descent are God’s chosen people, often associated with white supremacist and extremist groups.
climate change denial	The rejection or dismissal of the scientific consensus that the climate is changing and that human activity is a significant contributing factor. Part of a broader cultural trend of science denialism.
The Confederacy	Refers to the Confederate States of America, a group of 11 southern states that seceded from the United States in 1861, leading to the American Civil War, primarily over the issue of slavery.
contamination	The presence of an unwanted substance or impurity in another substance, making it unsafe or unsuitable for use.
cosmopolitanism	Another term for globalist or internationalist, which are all dog whistles for Jewish people (see also: global cabal, blood libel)
Crossing the Rubicon	A phrase that signifies passing a point of no return, derived from Julius Caesar’s irreversible crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, leading to the Roman Civil War.
cultural Marxism	Anti-semitic conspiracy theory alleging that Jewish intellectuals who fled the Hitler regime were responsible for infecting American culture with their communist takeover plans and that this holy war is the war the right-wing fights each day.
deep state	The idea of a body within the government and military that operates independently of elected officials, often believed to manipulate government policy and direction.
DVE	(Domestic Violent Extremism): Refers to violent acts committed within a country’s borders by individuals motivated by domestic political, religious, racial, or social ideologies.
fake news	Information that is false or misleading, created and disseminated with the intent to deceive the public or sway public opinion.
GamerGate	A controversy that started in 2014 involving the harassment of women in the video game industry, under the guise of advocating for ethics in gaming journalism.
George Soros	A Hungarian-American billionaire investor and philanthropist, often the subject of unfounded conspiracy theories alleging he manipulates global politics and economies.
Hollywood	The historic center of the United States film industry, often used to refer broadly to American cinema and its cultural influence.
Illuminati	A term often associated with various conspiracy theories that allege a secret society controlling world affairs, originally referring to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society.
InfoWars	A controversial far-right media platform known for promoting conspiracy theories, disinformation, and misinformation, hosted by clinical narcissist Alex Jones.
JFK assassination	The assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, an event surrounded by numerous conspiracy theories regarding the motives and identities of the assassins.
John Birch Society	The QAnon of its day (circa 1960s), this extreme right-wing group was theoretically about anti-communist ideals but espoused a host of conspiracy theories and outlandish beliefs.
lamestream media	Derogatory term for any media that isn’t right-wing media.
leftist apocalypse	A hyperbolic term used by some critics to describe a scenario where leftist or progressive policies lead to societal collapse or significant negative consequences.
Makers and Takers	A right-wing economic dichotomy used to describe individuals or groups who contribute to society or the economy (makers) versus those who are perceived to take from it without contributing (takers). See also: Mudsill Theory, trickle down economics, supply side economics, Reaganomics, Libertarianism
micro-propaganda machine	MPM: Refers to the use of targeted, small-scale dissemination of propaganda, often through social media and other digital platforms, to influence public opinion or behavior.
motivated reasoning	The cognitive process where individuals form conclusions that are more favorable to their preexisting beliefs or desires, rather than based on objective evidence.
New World Order	A conspiracy theory that posits a secretly emerging totalitarian world government, often associated with fears of loss of sovereignty and individual freedoms. (see also, OWG, ZOG)
nullification	A constitutional “theory” put forth by southern states before the Civil War that they have the power to invalidate any federal laws or judicial decisions they consider unconstitutional. It’s never been upheld by the federal courts.
One World Government	The concept of a single government authority that would govern the entire world, often discussed in the context of global cooperation or, conversely, as a dystopian threat in conspiracy theories. (see also: NWO, ZOG)
PizzaGate	A debunked and baseless conspiracy theory alleging the involvement of certain U.S. political figures in a child sex trafficking ring, supposedly operated out of a Washington, D.C., pizzeria.
post-truth	Refers to a cultural and political context in which debate is framed largely by appeals to emotion disconnected from the details of policy, and by the repeated assertion of talking points to which factual rebuttals are ignored.
PR	public relations
propaganda	Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view.
Protocols of the Elders of Zion	Forged anti-semitic document alleging a secret Jewish child murder conspiracy used by Hitler to gin up support for his regime.
PsyOps	Psychological operations: Operations intended to convey selected information and indicators to audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of governments, organizations, groups, and individuals. Used as part of hybrid warfare and information warfare tactics in geopolitical (and, sadly, domestic) arenas.
QAnon	A baseless conspiracy theory alleging that a secret cabal of Satan-worshipping pedophiles is running a global child sex-trafficking ring and plotting against former U.S. President Donald Trump.
Q Drops	Messages or “drops” posted on internet forums by “Q,” the anonymous figure at the center of the QAnon conspiracy theory, often cryptic and claiming to reveal secret information about a supposed deep state conspiracy.
reactionary modernism	A term that describes the combination of modern technological development with traditionalist or reactionary political and cultural beliefs, often seen in fascist ideologies.
Reichstag fire	An arson attack on the Reichstag building (home of the German parliament) in Berlin on February 27, 1933, which the Nazi regime used as a pretext to claim that Communists were plotting against the German government.
Rothschilds	A wealthy Jewish family of bankers, often subject to various unfounded conspiracy theories alleging they control global financial systems and world events.
sock puppets	Online identities used for purposes of deception, such as to praise, defend, or support a person or organization while appearing to be an independent party.
“Stand back and stand by”	A phrase used by former U.S. President Donald Trump during a presidential debate, which was interpreted as a call to readiness by the Proud Boys, a far-right and neo-fascist organization that seemed to answer his calling during the riot and coup attempt at the Capitol on January 6, 2021.
The Storm	Within the context of QAnon, a prophesied event in which members of the supposed deep state cabal will be arrested and punished for their crimes.
WikiLeaks	WikiLeaks is a controversial platform known for publishing classified and secret documents from anonymous sources, gaining international attention for its major leaks. While it has played a significant role in exposing hidden information, its release of selectively edited materials has also contributed to the spread of conspiracy theories related to American and Russian politics.
ZOG	ZOG (Zionist Occupation Government): A conspiracy theory claiming that Jewish people secretly control a country, particularly the United States, while the term itself is antisemitic and unfounded.

April 19, 2024

Confirmation loop

The concept of a “confirmation loop” in psychology is a critical element to understand in the contexts of media literacy, disinformation, and political ideologies. It operates on the basic human tendency to seek out, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, known as confirmation bias. This bias is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning that affects the decisions and judgments that people make.

Understanding the confirmation loop

A confirmation loop occurs when confirmation bias is reinforced in a cyclical manner, often exacerbated by the selective exposure to information that aligns with one’s existing beliefs. In the digital age, this is particularly prevalent due to the echo chambers created by online social networks and personalized content algorithms.

These technologies tend to present us with information that aligns with our existing views, thus creating a loop where our beliefs are constantly confirmed, and alternative viewpoints are rarely encountered. This can solidify and deepen convictions, making individuals more susceptible to disinformation and conspiracy theories, and less tolerant of opposing viewpoints.

Media literacy and disinformation

Media literacy is the ability to identify different types of media and understand the messages they’re sending. It’s crucial in breaking the confirmation loop as it involves critically evaluating sources of information, their purposes, and their impacts on our thoughts and beliefs.

With the rise of digital media, individuals are bombarded with an overwhelming amount of information, making it challenging to distinguish between credible information and disinformation. It is paramount to find your own set of credible sources, and verify the ethics and integrity of new sources you come across.

Disinformation, or false information deliberately spread to deceive people, thrives in an environment where confirmation loops are strong. Individuals trapped in confirmation loops are more likely to accept information that aligns with their preexisting beliefs without scrutinizing its credibility. This makes disinformation a powerful tool in manipulating public opinion, especially in politically charged environments.

Political ideologies

The impact of confirmation loops on political ideologies cannot be overstated. Political beliefs are deeply held and can significantly influence how information is perceived and processed.

When individuals only consume media that aligns with their political beliefs, they’re in a confirmation loop that can reinforce partisan views and deepen divides. This is particularly concerning in democratic societies where informed and diverse opinions are essential for healthy political discourse.

Operation of the confirmation loop

The operation of the confirmation loop can be seen in various everyday situations. For instance, a person might exclusively watch news channels that reflect their political leanings, follow like-minded individuals on social media, and participate in online forums that share their viewpoints.

Algorithms on many platforms like Facebook and Twitter (X) detect these preferences and continue to feed similar content, thus reinforcing the loop. Over time, this can result in a narrowed perspective, where alternative viewpoints are not just ignored but may also be actively discredited or mocked.

Becoming more aware and breaking the loop

Becoming more aware of confirmation loops and working to break them is essential for fostering open-mindedness and reducing susceptibility to disinformation. Here are several strategies to achieve this:

Diversify Information Sources: Actively seek out and engage with credible sources of information that offer differing viewpoints. This can help broaden your perspective and challenge your preconceived notions.
Critical Thinking: Develop critical thinking skills to analyze and question the information you encounter. Look for evidence, check sources, and consider the purpose and potential biases behind the information.
Media Literacy Education: Invest time in learning about media literacy. Understanding how media is created, its various forms, and its impact can help you navigate information more effectively.
Reflect on Biases: Regularly reflect on your own biases and consider how they might be affecting your interpretation of information. Self-awareness is a crucial step in mitigating the impact of confirmation loops.
Engage in Constructive Dialogue: Engage in respectful and constructive dialogues with individuals who hold different viewpoints. This can expose you to new perspectives and reduce the polarization exacerbated by confirmation loops.

The confirmation loop is a powerful psychological phenomenon that plays a significant role in shaping our beliefs and perceptions, especially in the context of media literacy, disinformation, and political ideologies. By understanding how it operates and actively working to mitigate its effects, individuals can become more informed, open-minded, and resilient against disinformation.

The path toward breaking the confirmation loop involves a conscious effort to engage with diverse information sources, practice critical thinking, and foster an environment of open and respectful discourse.

April 18, 2024

Ego defense

The concept of ego defenses, also known simply as defense mechanisms, is fundamental in the field of psychology, particularly within the psychoanalytic framework established by Sigmund Freud and further developed by his daughter Anna Freud and other psychoanalysts. These mechanisms are subconscious safeguards that protect individuals from anxiety and the awareness of internal or external dangers or stressors.

Understanding ego defense mechanisms

Ego defenses operate at a psychological level to help manage the conflicts between internal impulses and external reality. They often work by distorting, transforming, or somehow denying reality. While these mechanisms can vary widely in terms of their sophistication and the level of distortion they involve, all serve the primary function of reducing emotional distress.

Some common defense mechanisms include:

Denial: Refusing to accept reality because it is too painful or difficult to face.
Repression: Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts or desires from consciousness.
Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
Rationalization: Creating a seemingly logical reason for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions from a ‘dangerous’ object to a ‘safe’ one.
Regression: Reverting to behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development when confronted with stress.

These mechanisms aren’t inherently bad; they can be essential for coping with stress and can be adaptive in many circumstances. However, when overused or used inappropriately, they can lead to unhealthy patterns and psychological distress.

Ego defense mechanisms and disinformation

When it comes to disinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies, ego defenses play a crucial role in how individuals process and react to information that conflicts with their existing beliefs or worldviews. This intersection is particularly apparent in the phenomena of denial, projection, and rationalization.

Denial comes into play when individuals refuse to accept verified facts because these facts are uncomfortable or threatening to their pre-existing views or sense of self. For example, someone might deny the impacts of climate change because acknowledging it would necessitate uncomfortable changes in their lifestyle or worldview.
Projection is evident when individuals attribute malicious intent or undesirable traits to others rather than recognizing them in themselves. In the realm of conspiracy theories, this can manifest as accusing various groups or organizations of conspiring for control, thereby projecting one’s own feelings of vulnerability or distrust.
Rationalization allows individuals to justify belief in disinformation or extremist ideologies by providing reasonable but false explanations for these beliefs. This can often involve elaborate justifications for why certain pieces of disinformation fit into their broader understanding of the world, despite clear evidence to the contrary.

The psychological appeal of extremist ideologies

Extremist ideologies often provide a sense of certainty, control, and identity, all of which are deeply appealing on a psychological level, particularly for individuals feeling disconnected or powerless. These ideologies can effectively reduce psychological discomfort by providing simple, albeit inaccurate, explanations for complex social or personal issues.

How ego defenses facilitate belief in extremist ideologies

Ego defenses facilitate adherence to extremist ideologies by allowing individuals to:

Avoid cognitive dissonance: Maintaining a consistent belief system, even if it’s flawed, helps avoid the discomfort of conflicting beliefs.
Feel part of a group: Aligning with a group that shares one’s defensive strategies can reinforce a sense of belonging and identity.
Displace emotions: Directing negative emotions towards ‘out-groups’ or perceived enemies rather than dealing with personal issues or societal complexities.

Ego defenses keep false beliefs “sticky”

Ego defenses are not only fundamental to personal psychological functioning but also play a significant role in how people interact with and are influenced by broader societal narratives. Understanding the role of these mechanisms in the context of disinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies is crucial for addressing these issues effectively. This understanding helps illuminate why such beliefs are appealing and resistant to change, highlighting the need for approaches that address underlying psychological needs and defenses.

Knowing the power of ego defenses helps explain why we shouldn’t expect people to part with their strongly-held false beliefs based on simple exposure to actual facts or corrective information — there is often something much deeper going on. In fact, confronting a conspiracy theorist or extremist with contradictory facts or information can often lead to a backfire effect, where the individual comes away more strongly committed to their false beliefs than they were before.

April 10, 2024

Stochastic terrorism

Stochastic terrorism is a term that has emerged in the lexicon of political and social analysis to describe a method of inciting violence indirectly through the use of mass communication. This concept is predicated on the principle that while not everyone in an audience will act on violent rhetoric, a small percentage might.

The term “stochastic” refers to a process that is randomly determined; it implies that the specific outcomes are unpredictable, yet the overall distribution of these outcomes follows a pattern that can be statistically analyzed. In the context of stochastic terrorism, it means that while it is uncertain who will act on incendiary messages and violent political rhetoric, it is almost certain that someone will.

The nature of stochastic terrorism

Stochastic terrorism involves the dissemination of public statements, whether through speeches, social media, or traditional media, that incite violence. The individuals or entities spreading such rhetoric may not directly call for political violence. Instead, they create an atmosphere charged with tension and hostility, suggesting that action must be taken against a perceived threat or enemy. This indirect incitement provides plausible deniability, as those who broadcast the messages can claim they never explicitly advocated for violence.

Prominent stochastic terrorism examples

The following are just a few notable illustrative examples of stochastic terrorism:

The Oklahoma City Bombing (1995): Timothy McVeigh, influenced by extremist anti-government rhetoric, the 1992 Ruby Ridge standoff, and the 1993 siege at Waco, Texas, detonated a truck bomb outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people. This act was fueled by ideologies that demonized the federal government, highlighting how extremism and extremist propaganda can inspire individuals to commit acts of terror.
The Oslo and Utøya Attacks (2011): Anders Behring Breivik, driven by anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant beliefs, bombed government buildings in Oslo, Norway, then shot and killed 69 people at a youth camp on the island of Utøya. Breivik’s manifesto cited many sources that painted Islam and multiculturalism as existential threats to Europe, showing the deadly impact of extremist online echo chambers and the pathology of right-wing ideologies such as Great Replacement Theory.
The Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting (2018): Robert Bowers, influenced by white supremacist ideologies and conspiracy theories about migrant caravans, killed 11 worshippers in a synagogue. His actions were preceded by social media posts that echoed hate speech and conspiracy theories rampant in certain online communities, demonstrating the lethal consequences of unmoderated hateful rhetoric.
The El Paso Shooting (2019): Patrick Crusius targeted a Walmart in El Paso, Texas, killing 23 people, motivated by anti-immigrant sentiment and rhetoric about a “Hispanic invasion” of Texas. His manifesto mirrored language used in certain media and political discourse, underscoring the danger of using dehumanizing language against minority groups.
Christchurch Mosque Shootings (2019): Brenton Tarrant live-streamed his attack on two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 51 people, influenced by white supremacist beliefs and online forums that amplified Islamophobic rhetoric. The attacker’s manifesto and online activity were steeped in extremist content, illustrating the role of internet subcultures in radicalizing individuals.

Stochastic terrorism in right-wing politics in the US

In the United States, the concept of stochastic terrorism has become increasingly relevant in analyzing the tactics employed by certain right-wing entities and individuals. While the phenomenon is not exclusive to any single political spectrum, recent years have seen notable instances where right-wing rhetoric has been linked to acts of violence.

The January 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol serves as a stark example of stochastic terrorism. The event was preceded by months of unfounded claims of electoral fraud and calls to “stop the steal,” amplified by right-wing media outlets and figures — including then-President Trump who had extraordinary motivation to portray his 2020 election loss as a victory in order to stay in power. This rhetoric created a charged environment, leading some individuals to believe that violent action was a justified response to defend democracy.

The role of media and technology

Right-wing media platforms have played a significant role in amplifying messages that could potentially incite stochastic terrorism. Through the strategic use of incendiary language, disinformation, misinformation, and conspiracy theories, these platforms have the power to reach vast audiences and influence susceptible individuals to commit acts of violence.

The advent of social media has further complicated the landscape, enabling the rapid spread of extremist rhetoric. The decentralized nature of these platforms allows for the creation of echo chambers where inflammatory messages are not only amplified but also go unchallenged, increasing the risk of radicalization.

Challenges and implications

Stochastic terrorism presents significant legal and societal challenges. The indirect nature of incitement complicates efforts to hold individuals accountable for the violence that their rhetoric may inspire. Moreover, the phenomenon raises critical questions about the balance between free speech and the prevention of violence, challenging societies to find ways to protect democratic values while preventing harm.

Moving forward

Addressing stochastic terrorism requires a multifaceted approach. This includes promoting responsible speech among public figures, enhancing critical thinking and media literacy among the public, and developing legal and regulatory frameworks that can effectively address the unique challenges posed by this form of terrorism. Ultimately, combating stochastic terrorism is not just about preventing violence; it’s about preserving the integrity of democratic societies and ensuring that public discourse does not become a catalyst for harm.

Understanding and mitigating the effects of stochastic terrorism is crucial in today’s increasingly polarized world. By recognizing the patterns and mechanisms through which violence is indirectly incited, societies can work towards more cohesive and peaceful discourse, ensuring that democracy is protected from the forces that seek to undermine it through fear and division.